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Questions and Answers
Cerebrospinal fluid primarily protects the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical ______.
Cerebrospinal fluid primarily protects the brain and spinal cord from chemical and physical ______.
injuries
The cerebrum is considered the ‘seat of ______.’
The cerebrum is considered the ‘seat of ______.’
intelligence
The outer rim of the cerebrum is formed by a region of gray matter known as the ______ cortex.
The outer rim of the cerebrum is formed by a region of gray matter known as the ______ cortex.
cerebral
The area that occupies the region anterior to the central sulcus is known as the ______ lobe.
The area that occupies the region anterior to the central sulcus is known as the ______ lobe.
Elevated ridges in the cerebral cortex are known as ______.
Elevated ridges in the cerebral cortex are known as ______.
Cerebrospinal fluid is a buoyant liquid that suspends the central nervous tissue in a ______ environment.
Cerebrospinal fluid is a buoyant liquid that suspends the central nervous tissue in a ______ environment.
CSF provides optimal ______ environment for accurate neuronal signaling.
CSF provides optimal ______ environment for accurate neuronal signaling.
CSF acts as a medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between the ______ and adjacent nervous tissue.
CSF acts as a medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between the ______ and adjacent nervous tissue.
The choroid plexus is responsible for the production of ______.
The choroid plexus is responsible for the production of ______.
The meninges are three distinct protective connective tissue coverings that encircle the ______ and brain.
The meninges are three distinct protective connective tissue coverings that encircle the ______ and brain.
The most superficial layer of the meninges is called the ______ mater.
The most superficial layer of the meninges is called the ______ mater.
The spinal cord is protected by a cushion of fat and connective tissue located in the ______ space.
The spinal cord is protected by a cushion of fat and connective tissue located in the ______ space.
The flow of CSF follows a specific pathway, starting from the choroid plexus, through the lateral ventricle, and into the ______ ventricle.
The flow of CSF follows a specific pathway, starting from the choroid plexus, through the lateral ventricle, and into the ______ ventricle.
The ______ lobe is responsible for processing auditory stimuli.
The ______ lobe is responsible for processing auditory stimuli.
The primary visual cortex is located in the ______ lobe.
The primary visual cortex is located in the ______ lobe.
The area that processes tactile and proprioceptive sensations is called the ______ gyrus.
The area that processes tactile and proprioceptive sensations is called the ______ gyrus.
Wernicke's area, involved in language comprehension, is located in the ______ lobe.
Wernicke's area, involved in language comprehension, is located in the ______ lobe.
The ______ lobe occupies the area posterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus.
The ______ lobe occupies the area posterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus.
The major relay station for most sensory information is the ______.
The major relay station for most sensory information is the ______.
The ______ lobe processes visual stimuli and contains the visual association cortex.
The ______ lobe processes visual stimuli and contains the visual association cortex.
The ______ cortex is responsible for receiving auditory stimuli.
The ______ cortex is responsible for receiving auditory stimuli.
The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to ______ by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli.
The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to ______ by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli.
The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the ______.
The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the ______.
White matter is composed primarily of ______ axons.
White matter is composed primarily of ______ axons.
The conus medullaris is a conical structure that is inferior to the lumbar ______.
The conus medullaris is a conical structure that is inferior to the lumbar ______.
The ______ matter of the nervous system contains neuronal cell bodies and dendrites.
The ______ matter of the nervous system contains neuronal cell bodies and dendrites.
The filum terminale is an extension of the pia matter that fuses with the _____ mater.
The filum terminale is an extension of the pia matter that fuses with the _____ mater.
A total of 31 pairs of _____ nerves emerge from the intervertebral foramen.
A total of 31 pairs of _____ nerves emerge from the intervertebral foramen.
The level at which the spinal cord terminates in adults is between the first and _____ lumbar vertebrae.
The level at which the spinal cord terminates in adults is between the first and _____ lumbar vertebrae.
The limbic system is sometimes called the 'emotional ______' because it plays a primary role in a range of emotions.
The limbic system is sometimes called the 'emotional ______' because it plays a primary role in a range of emotions.
The ______ is inferior to the thalamus and controls many body activities.
The ______ is inferior to the thalamus and controls many body activities.
The small region that contains the pineal gland and habenular nuclei is known as the ______.
The small region that contains the pineal gland and habenular nuclei is known as the ______.
The ______ is second only to the cerebrum in size and is involved in movement coordination.
The ______ is second only to the cerebrum in size and is involved in movement coordination.
The medulla oblongata continues with the superior part of the spinal ______.
The medulla oblongata continues with the superior part of the spinal ______.
The ______ lies directly superior to the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum.
The ______ lies directly superior to the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum.
The ______ is responsible for eye movements such as those involving the medial rectus and inferior oblique muscles.
The ______ is responsible for eye movements such as those involving the medial rectus and inferior oblique muscles.
The ______ is characterized by unmyelinated axons and a gray color due to Nissl bodies.
The ______ is characterized by unmyelinated axons and a gray color due to Nissl bodies.
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Study Notes
Meninges
- Three layers of connective tissue that protect the spinal cord and brain:
- Dura mater: Most superficial layer
- Arachnoid mater: Middle layer
- Pia mater: Deepest layer
- Spinal meninges are continuous with the cranial meninges
- Epidural space: Located between the dura mater and the wall of the vertebral canal, it is filled with fat and connective tissue, providing additional protection
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- Clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of water
- Functions:
- Mechanical protection: Acts as a shock absorber
- Chemical protection: Maintains optimal chemical environment for neuronal signaling
- Circulation: Facilitates exchange of nutrients and waste products between blood and nervous tissue
- Production: Choroid plexus
- Circulation:
- Choroid plexus > Lateral ventricle > Foramen of Monroe > Third ventricle > Sylvian aqueduct > Fourth ventricle > Foramen of Luschka > Foramen of Magendie > Subarachnoid space
Cerebrum
- "Seat of intelligence"
- Controls higher brain functions: reading, writing, speaking, calculations, music composition, memory, planning, imagination
- Cerebral cortex: Outer rim of the cerebrum, composed of gray matter
- During embryonic development, the cortex grows faster than the underlying white matter, resulting in folds and grooves
- Cerebral gyri: Elevated ridges
- Grooves:
- Cerebral sulci (singular: sulcus): Separate neighboring gyri
- Interlobar sulci: Separate lobes of the cerebrum
- Cerebral fissures: Separate parts of the brain
Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres
- Frontal lobe: Anterior to the central sulcus (CSR) and superior to the lateral sulcus
- Precentral gyrus: Primary motor cortex
- Functions:
- Behavior, judgement and emotion
- Intelligence
- Voluntary movement
- Broca's area: Controls motor aspects of speech
- Parietal lobe: Posterior to the central sulcus (CSR) and superior to the lateral sulcus
- Postcentral gyrus: Primary sensory cortex
- Functions:
- Receives tactile, proprioceptive, pain, and temperature sensation from the opposite side of the body
- Occipital lobe: Posterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus
- Primary visual cortex: Receives and processes visual stimuli
- Visual association cortex: Processes visual stimuli
- Function: Vision
- Temporal lobe: Inferior to the lateral sulcus
- Primary auditory cortex: Processes auditory stimuli
- Associative auditory cortex: Processes auditory stimuli
- Wernicke's area: Language comprehension
- Functions:
- Speech and language
- Hearing (auditory)
Diencephalon
- Thalamus:
- Major relay station for sensory information from spinal cord and brainstem to the primary sensory cortex
- Contributes to motor functions by transmitting information from cerebellum and corpus striatum to the primary motor cortex
- Relays nerve impulses between different areas of the cerebrum
- Plays a role in maintaining consciousness
- Hypothalamus:
- Inferior to the thalamus
- Controls many body activities related to homeostasis
- Secretes hormones that regulate body temperature, sleep, thirst, and hunger
- Epithalamus:
- Small region, superior and posterior to the thalamus
- Contains:
- Pineal gland: Secretes melatonin
- Habenular nuclei: Involved in olfaction, especially emotional responses to odors
Limbic System
- "Emotional brain"
- Plays a role in a range of emotions:
- Pain
- Pleasure
- Docility
- Affection
- Anger
- Also involved in olfaction (smell) and memory
Cerebellum
- Second largest part of the brain
- Occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of the cranial cavity
- Located posterior to the medulla and pons, and inferior to the posterior portion of the cerebrum
- Functions:
- Movement coordination
- Balance
Brainstem
- Medulla oblongata:
- Continues with the superior part of the spinal cord
- Forms the inferior part of the brainstem
- Begins at the foramen magnum
- Pons:
- Lies superior to the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum
- Midbrain:
- Extends from the pons to the diencephalon
Cranial Nerves
- Eye movements:
- Oculomotor: Controls medial rectus, superior and inferior rectus, inferior oblique muscles
- Trochlear: Controls superior oblique muscle
- Abducens: Controls lateral rectus muscle
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
- Spinal cord contributes to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to stimuli
- Pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the intervertebral foramen
- Cervical plexus: Network of nerves that innervate structures in the neck and shoulders
Brain and Spinal Cord: Internal Anatomy
- White matter: Composed primarily of myelinated axons
- Contains myelin, giving it a whitish color
- Gray matter: Contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, and neuroglia
- Appears grayish due to the presence of Nissl bodies and little myelin
- Spinal cord:
- White matter: Outer part
- Gray matter: Inner part
- Brain:
- White matter: Inner part
- Gray matter: Outer part
External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
- Conus medullaris:
- Conical structure that marks the inferior end of the spinal cord
- Terminates at the level of the intervertebral disc between the first and second lumbar vertebrae (L1-L2) in adults
- Filum terminale:
- Extension of the pia mater that extends inferiorly, fusing with the arachnoid mater and dura mater
- Anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx
- Spinal tap: Procedure performed between L3-L4 or L4-L5 vertebrae to collect CSF
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