Neuroscience Lecture Notes

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary role of insulin in the body?

Promotes cellular uptake of glucose and its storage (correct)

Increases blood sugar levels by releasing glucose

Inhibits the secretion of glucagon

Stimulates the production of glucose in the liver

Which of the following accurately describes Type II Diabetes Mellitus?

Dependent primarily on age and gender

Associated with insulin resistance and lifestyle factors (correct)

Primarily autoimmune in origin

Characterized by absolute insulin deficiency

What is a complication commonly associated with Metabolic Syndrome?

Increased levels of HDLs

Systemic inflammation indicated by elevated CRP (correct)

Hypoglycemia

Decreased levels of circulating insulin

Which factor is NOT typically associated with Type I Diabetes Mellitus?

Lifestyle factors contributing to insulin resistance Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the metabolism in individuals with Diabetes Mellitus?

Imbalance between anabolism and catabolism Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in endocrine regulation?

Releases releasing hormones that stimulate the pituitary gland Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily responsible for stimulating the growth of bone and muscle?

GH (Growth Hormone) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following disorders is characterized by excessive breakdown of bone tissue and subsequent abnormal formation?

Paget disease Signup and view all the answers

What condition is indicated by a serum uric acid level greater than 8.5 mg/dL?

Gout Signup and view all the answers

How does cortisols' role in the endocrine system primarily affect the body?

Increases blood glucose levels and manages stress Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the hormone parathyroid hormone (PTH) have on the blood calcium levels?

Increases calcium and phosphate levels Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following endocrine disorders is associated with a deficiency in vitamin D?

Osteomalacia Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the thyroid hormone?

Increases metabolic rate and supports growth Signup and view all the answers

What is a common risk factor for developing osteoporosis?

Low body weight Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of somatostatin in the endocrine system?

Inhibits growth hormone and TSH release Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of excess thyroid hormone (TH) on cardiovascular function?

Increased heart rate and contractility without rising blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

Which clinical manifestation is characteristic of hypothyroidism?

Cold intolerance Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary treatment for Addison's disease?

Hydrocortisone or fludrocortisone Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a risk factor for hyperthyroidism?

Graves' disease Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Cushing's disease?

Hypercortisolism and obesity Signup and view all the answers

In hyperthyroidism, which gastrointestinal symptom is expected?

Increased motility and diarrhea Signup and view all the answers

How does cortisol affect metabolism?

Increases protein metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by generalized puffiness and myxedematous features?

Myxedema coma Signup and view all the answers

What common hormone regulatory mechanism involves TRH, TSH, and TH?

Thyroid hormone regulatory axis Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an increase in aldosterone have on potassium levels?

Decrease in potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is commonly associated with hyperthyroidism?

Tachycardia Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the function of glucagon in the body?

Stimulates glucose release from liver Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following treatments is typically used for hyperthyroidism?

Beta-blockers Signup and view all the answers

What does a deficiency in thyroid hormone result in terms of gastrointestinal function?

Decreased motility and constipation Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Neuro Lecture Notes

Nervous tissue is composed of two cell types: neurons and neuroglial cells
Neurons are the fundamental unit of the nervous system, exhibiting excitability and conducting impulses
Afferent neurons are sensory neurons that transmit information to the central nervous system (CNS)
Efferent neurons are motor neurons that transmit information away from the CNS
Gray matter is primarily made up of neuronal cell bodies
Neuroglial cells form the scaffolding, provide protection, support, and glycogen storage
Astrocytes form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)
Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells produce myelin, increasing nerve impulse velocity

Metabolic Requirements of Nervous Tissue

The brain receives 15-20% of the total resting cardiac output (CO) and consumes 20% of its oxygen
The brain has no way to store oxygen, making it vulnerable to hypoxia
Clinical signs of hypoxia include altered mental status (AMS), confusion, restlessness, and loss of consciousness
Cell death begins within 4-6 minutes of oxygen deprivation

Gate Control Theory of Pain

Pain perception is modulated by a gate mechanism in the spinal cord
Ascending and descending pathways influence pain signals
Cognitive and emotional factors also modify the perception and intensity of pain
Large-diameter A-beta fibers (non-nociceptive input like touch) are faster and activate interneurons in the dorsal horn to minimize pain sensation
Rubbing, massage, vibration, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) are believed to close the gate.

Neuropathic Pain, Neuralgias, and Phantom Limb Pain

Neuropathic pain is a broad category of nerve-related pain caused by direct nerve damage
Neuralgia is a type of nerve-related pain characterized by brief, severe attacks of pain
Phantom limb pain results from a discrepancy between the brain's body map and sensory input
The brain continues to send signals to the location of the missing limb, resulting in the experience of pain

Skeletal Muscle Disorders

Muscular dystrophy are genetic conditions that lead to progressive deterioration of skeletal muscle fibers
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common type, characterized by progressive muscle weakness, necrosis, atrophy, and fat and connective tissue replacement.
Clinical manifestations include elevated muscle size & weakness.

Disorders of the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)

Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease that targets acetylcholine receptors at the NMJ leading to impaired signal transmission
Clinical manifestations include droopy eyelids, double vision, difficulty with chewing and swallowing, fatigue, and progressive muscle weakness

Peripheral Nerve Disorders

Guillain-Barre syndrome is an acute autoimmune attack on the myelin sheath, resulting in lower motor neuron disorder.
Clinical manifestations include ascending, symmetric flaccid paralysis, paresthesia, and numbness.

Disorders of the Basal Ganglia

Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
Clinical manifestations include tremors at rest, rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability, and difficulty initiating movements.

Stroke

Ischemic stroke is caused by a blockage in a blood vessel, preventing oxygen delivery to brain tissues.
Hemorrhagic stroke is caused by a ruptured blood vessel within the brain, leading to blood leakage.
Clinical presentations include confusion, headache, slurred speech, loss of movement, etc.

Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Cerebral Aneurysm

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a rupture of a cerebral aneurysm
Risk factors for both conditions include trauma and/or genetic predisposition
Clinical presentation features a violent headache and rapid loss of consciousness, potentially leading to death

Seizures

Seizures are abnormal, excessive electrical activity in the brain
Generalized seizures affect the entire brain, whereas focal or partial seizures are localized
Clinical presentation varies depending on the type of seizure.

Burn Injuries

Thermal burns are caused by heat, chemical burns by corrosive agents, and electrical burns by electricity
The severity of burns is categorized by depth – superficial, partial thickness and full thickness
Complications of burn injuries include local inflammatory response and systemic effects.

Cardiovascular Complications of Burn Injuries

Hypovolemia, shock, changes in blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output, are common consequences of significant burn injuries
Systemic inflammation, and infection are associated with severe disruptions to circulatory, immune, and metabolic functions.
Acute, severe burns increase metabolic requirements requiring high-calorie and protein nutrition support

Musculoskeletal Injuries

Fractures are breaks in bone continuity, caused by direct blows, impacts, or extreme forces
Dislocations occur when a bone is moved out of its proper position at a joint
Strains are partial or complete tears in ligaments, connecting tendons, and muscles
Clinical manifestations include pain, swelling, bruising, impaired movement, and deformity.

Venous Thromboembolism (VTE) & Fat Embolism Secondary to Trauma

Compartment syndrome occurs when swelling in a closed muscle compartment builds up excessive pressure that compromises blood flow.
VTEs are blood clots forming in the deep veins; risk factors for VTEs include immobilization venous stasis and hypercoagulability.
Fat embolism syndrome develops when fat globules or fat droplets enter the bloodstream and obstruct small blood vessels, disrupting oxygen delivery.

Osteomalacia

Osteomalacia is a softening of the bones caused by inadequate mineralization.
Causes include vitamin D deficiency, calcium deficiency, or certain medications
Clinical manifestations include bone pain, muscle weakness, and fractures.

Diabetes Mellitus

Two primary types of diabetes are Type I (insulin-dependent) and Type II (non-insulin-dependent).
Type I is an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
Type II is characterized by insulin resistance, where the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin.

Acute Complications of Diabetes Mellitus

Hypoglycemia is a decreased level of blood glucose
Acute complications result from an inability to maintain metabolic equilibrium.

Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus

Chronic complications of diabetes are long-term consequences resulting from damage to blood vessels and nerves.
Chronic complications can include retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy

Renal and Genitourinary Disorders

Urolithiasis or kidney stones involve the crystallization of minerals and salts in the urine, causing obstruction.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are infections of the urinary system. Common risk factors include sexual activity, anatomical factors, catheters, etc.
Glomerulonephritis is an inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidneys. Risk factors may include streptococcal bacterial infections

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)

AKI is a sudden decrease in kidney function, characterized by diminished glomerular filtration rate.
AKI can be caused by a variety of factors, including reduced blood flow to the kidneys, kidney damage and obstruction distal to the kidneys

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

CKD is a progressive decline in kidney function lasting three months or longer, characterized by a diminished glomerular filtration rate.
CKD can result from a number of long-term health conditions or a single episode of severe trauma or illness
Clinical presentation often involves a gradual worsening of symptoms.

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Description

Explore the basics of nervous tissue and its components in this quiz. Understand the roles of neurons, neuroglial cells, and the metabolic requirements crucial for brain function. Test your knowledge on how the brain functions and the consequences of hypoxia.