Khan p 311-322
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of cognitive therapy?

  • To prescribe medication for emotional responses.
  • To develop skills for dealing with stress.
  • To observe social interactions in real settings.
  • To identify and change unhelpful or inaccurate thinking. (correct)

What does the diathesis-stress model explain?

  • Behavior as solely a result of genetic factors.
  • The correlation between stress and socioeconomic status.
  • Behavior in terms of predispositional vulnerability and stress. (correct)
  • A method for observing social interactions.

Which statement accurately describes ethical research?

  • Research can proceed without informing participants about its nature.
  • Voluntary participation must be ensured, with the right to withdraw. (correct)
  • Participants must attend every session without the option to withdraw.
  • Data collected can be used regardless of participant consent.

What does socioeconomic status NOT typically include?

<p>Religious affiliation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of ethnographic research?

<p>Studying role strain through real-time observations of physicians. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the socioeconomic gradient refer to?

<p>The negative correlation between socioeconomic status and poverty. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the opponent-process theory?

<p>A model accounting for a variety of behaviors, including color vision. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of comparative research?

<p>It compares various countries or cultures in a cooperative framework. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Flynn effect primarily concerned with?

<p>The increase in IQ across generations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which philosophical concept is characterized by self-interest as the motivation for behavior?

<p>Egoism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is based on associations between two different stimuli?

<p>Conditioned memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes minority influence?

<p>A smaller group persuading the majority over time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which option correctly lists the stages of Cross's Nigrescence Model?

<p>Pre-encounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, Internalization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of Multiple Approach-Avoidance describe?

<p>The internal conflict of weighing pros and cons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is emotional intelligence primarily about?

<p>Understanding one's own emotions and their impact (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle contrasts with psychological egoism?

<p>Psychological altruism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'distal stimulus' refer to?

<p>The actual object or event in the real world (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the proximal stimulus?

<p>The physical stimulation available for sensory measurement (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the example of a person looking at a shoe, what is the proximal stimulus?

<p>The image of the shoe on the retina (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does psychophysics primarily study?

<p>The relationship between stimuli and sensory experience (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which option illustrates the concept of a distal stimulus?

<p>The physical telephone itself (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of word association?

<p>Responding to a word by saying a related word (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does psychophysical testing methods analyze?

<p>Variations in physical dimensions of stimuli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about sensory transduction is true?

<p>It translates physical stimulation into neural activity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of agraphia?

<p>Loss of ability to form graphemes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of aphasia is characterized by the ability to produce speech but lacks meaningful content?

<p>Wernicke's aphasia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT) primarily target?

<p>Non-fluent forms of aphasia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a possible outcome of global aphasia?

<p>Inability to produce and understand speech (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes a mediating variable?

<p>It accounts for variations between the independent variable and the dependent variable. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a moderating variable affect the relationship between two other variables?

<p>It clarifies the strength of that relationship under specified conditions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic defines receptive aphasia?

<p>Fluent speech with no comprehension (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true about Broca's aphasia?

<p>Speech production is possible but often incomplete or labored. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a confounding variable?

<p>A variable that is often overlooked but affects the relationship between IV and DV. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a confounding variable differ from a mediating variable?

<p>A mediating variable causes a change in the relationship between IV and DV. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is heterophily?

<p>The tendency of individuals to gather in diverse groups. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does GABA serve in the central nervous system?

<p>It acts as a chief inhibitory neurotransmitter. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitters are considered monoamines that play a role in mood regulation?

<p>Norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of aversive conditioning?

<p>To associate unwanted behavior with noxious stimuli. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a social cue refer to?

<p>A non-verbal or vocal signal guiding social interactions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Beck's Cognitive Therapy primarily associated with?

<p>Cognitive restructuring and behavioral modification. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an approach-avoidance conflict?

<p>One option with both positive and negative aspects (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle of influence suggests that people are likely to return a favor?

<p>Reciprocity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When making a decision, what does an avoidant-avoidant conflict involve?

<p>Choosing between two unpleasant options (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the principle of commitment and consistency?

<p>Once committed, people tend to maintain their agreements (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a double approach-avoidant conflict, what is true about the options?

<p>Each option has both appealing and negative characteristics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What example illustrates the principle of reciprocity effectively?

<p>Ethiopia providing aid to Mexico after an earthquake (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of decision-making, what is the primary focus of an approach-approach conflict?

<p>Choosing between two equally rewarding options (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an effect of commitment and consistency on behavior?

<p>Once a commitment is made, individuals tend to follow through (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cognitive Model

A psychological theory that links thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, suggesting that changing negative thought patterns can improve emotional well-being and behavior.

Cognitive Therapy

A therapy technique that focuses on identifying and challenging unhelpful or inaccurate thoughts, behaviors, and emotional responses to improve mental health.

Opponent-Process Theory

A psychological and neurological model explaining various behaviors, including color perception, based on opposing processes in the brain.

Diathesis-Stress Model

A theory that explains mental health issues by combining a predisposition to a disorder (diathesis) and stressful life experiences.

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Socioeconomic Status (SES)

A combination of factors including income, education level, and occupation status that influence an individual's social standing.

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Socioeconomic Gradient

A negative correlation between SES and health outcomes, meaning lower SES is linked to poorer health.

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Ethnographic Research

Research that focuses on observing social interactions in their natural settings to understand cultural behaviors and beliefs.

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Comparative Research

A research method that compares different groups or cultures to understand similarities and differences.

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Distal Stimulus

The actual object or stimulus in the real world that you perceive.

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Proximal Stimulus

The sensory information that actually reaches your senses, like the image on your retina or the sound waves hitting your eardrum.

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Psychophysics

A method used to study how people perceive stimuli by systematically varying the physical properties of the stimulus.

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Word Association

A game that involves associating words together, based on their meaning or relatedness.

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What is the proximal stimulus?

The pattern of stimuli from objects and events that actually reach our senses.

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What is the distal stimulus?

An object or event in the real world that provides information for the proximal stimulus.

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Flynn Effect

The tendency for IQ scores to increase from one generation to the next.

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Emotional Intelligence

The ability to understand your own emotions and how they affect your behavior and the behavior of others.

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Median

A statistical measure that represents the middle value in a dataset. It is less affected by extreme values compared to the mode.

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Egoism

The view that all human actions are driven solely by self-interest and the pursuit of personal benefits.

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Cross's Nigrescence Model

The stages of racial identity development that explore the process of discovering and accepting one's racial identity. It includes Pre-Encounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, Internalization, and Internalization-Commitment.

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Conditioned Memory

A type of memory formed through associations between two distinct elements or experiences.

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Minority Influence

The ability of a minority group to influence the majority's opinions and behaviors over time.

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Multiple Approach-Avoidance

The mental struggle of weighing the pros and cons of different options that have both positive and negative aspects.

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Confounding Variable

An extraneous variable related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables, affecting the relationship between the independent and dependent variables but not of primary interest to the researcher.

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Homophily

The tendency for individuals to associate with others who share similar characteristics or traits.

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Heterophily

The tendency for individuals to associate with others who are different from themselves in terms of characteristics or traits.

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Aversive Conditioning

A technique that uses unpleasant stimuli to reduce the occurrence of unwanted behavior.

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Social Cue

A vocal or non-vocal cue that influences social interactions, providing information about the speaker's intentions or the context of the interaction.

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Cognitive Therapy (CT)

A type of therapy that focuses on identifying and challenging unhelpful or negative thought patterns, emotions, and behaviors, to improve mental well-being.

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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A type of psychotherapy that combines elements of cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy to address a wide range of mental health issues.

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Approach-approach Conflict

A decision-making scenario where two appealing options are presented, making the choice difficult.

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Avoidant-avoidant Conflict

A decision-making scenario where two unappealing options are presented

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Approach-avoidance Conflict

A decision-making scenario where one option presents both positive and negative aspects, making the choice complicated.

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Double Approach-avoidant Conflict

A decision-making scenario with two options, each having both appealing and negative aspects, presenting a complex dilemma.

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Reciprocity

A principle suggesting that people feel obligated to return favors, often used in marketing and social interactions.

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Commitment and Consistency

A principle suggesting that people are more likely to honor a commitment they have made, whether verbal or written, to align with their self-image.

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Cognitive Dissonance

A state of discomfort experienced when attitudes or behaviors clash with beliefs, creating pressure to reduce the discrepancy.

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Brainwashing

A method used to manipulate people's self-image to gain compliance, often through repeated reinforcement and changing perceptions.

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Agraphia

A form of aphasia where a person loses the ability to form letters, hindering their writing ability.

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The McGurk Effect

A phenomenon where auditory perception changes when visual information conflicts with the sound, impacting our understanding of speech.

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Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT)

A therapy method most effective for individuals with non-fluent forms of aphasia, utilizing melody and intonation to help with speech recovery.

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Receptive Aphasia

A type of aphasia where individuals can understand spoken or written language, but struggle to comprehend its meaning.

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Wernicke's Aphasia

A fluent form of aphasia characterized by the ability to speak but with nonsensical, jumbled words or phrases (like 'word salad').

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Global Aphasia

A severe form of aphasia affecting various language abilities, caused by damage to a large portion of the left hemisphere.

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Broca's Aphasia

A non-fluent form of aphasia where individuals have difficulty speaking but can still comprehend spoken language.

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Mediating Variable

A variable that explains the relationship between two other variables, acting as an intermediary or explanation of why one influences the other.

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Moderating Variable

Variable that influences the strength of the relationship between two other variables, determining 'when' or 'under what conditions' this relationship exists.

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Study Notes

Visual Processing and Recognition

  • The fusiform gyrus is involved in high-level visual processing and recognition, part of the temporal and occipital lobes.
  • The temporal lobes process auditory information, interpret visual stimuli, and recognize language.
  • The parietal lobes are responsible for spatial reasoning and receiving somatosensory information.
  • Visual agnosia is a ventral pathway disorder characterized by the inability to recognize images.

Neurological Phenomena

  • Synesthesia is a neurological phenomenon where stimulating one sensory or cognitive pathway triggers involuntary experiences in another pathway.
  • Calcium ions (Ca2+) are crucial for activity-dependent plasticity. Irregular levels are linked to diseases like Huntington's, Alzheimer's, and schizophrenia.

Psychiatric Medications

  • Antipsychotics manage psychosis (delusions, hallucinations, paranoia) primarily for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; increasingly used for non-psychotic conditions.
  • They block dopamine pathways, potentially causing Parkinson-like symptoms.

Sociological Theory

  • The Thomas Theorem (1928) posits that if people define situations as real, they become real in their consequences.

Perception and Sensation

  • Haptic perception involves exploring objects through touch, often using hands or fingers.
  • Active touch is the use of haptic perception to inspect an object.
  • Adaptation signifies sensory level change, and habituation is perceptive/cognitive.
  • Phantom pain involves perceiving pain in a missing body part.
  • Tonotopy describes the brain's mapping of sound frequencies.
  • A dermatome is an area of skin with nerve fibers from a single posterior spinal root ganglion.

Brain Structure and Function

  • The connectome maps brain connections.
  • The homunculus is a cortical map of how different areas of the skin are represented in the primary somatosensory cortex.
  • Interference, like the Stroop effect, slows reaction time in mentally challenging tasks.
  • LSD affects serotonin neurotransmission.
  • Nicotine acts as a CNS stimulant, and amphetamine blocks dopamine reuptake.
  • Alcohol serves as a CNS depressant.

Schizophrenia Symptoms

  • Positive symptoms include delusions, neologisms, and hallucinations.
  • Negative symptoms feature diminished emotional expression and social withdrawal.
  • The mesolimbic pathway is involved in reward, motivation, and positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
  • The mesocortical pathway influences the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
  • Dopamine release in the tuberoinfundibular pathway regulates prolactin.
  • The nigrostriatal pathway is linked to motor function.

Other Medical Conditions

  • Hypochondria: extreme anxiety about health.
  • Illness anxiety disorder: preoccupation with illness symptoms.
  • Paraphilias: intense and persistent sexual interests that are considered unusual. These encompass certain sexual sadism, masochism, and pedophilia.
  • Paraphilia: sexual interest beyond socially acceptable norms.
  • Teratogen: substance that disrupts fetal development.
  • Phenylketonuria and polycystic kidney disease are genetic.
  • Fetal alcohol syndrome has a direct correlation with alcohol consumption during pregnancy.
  • Neuropeptide Y inhibits the feeding circuit, blocking satiety.

Stimulus and Perception

  • Proximal stimulus: physical stimulation received by sensory receptors.
  • Distal stimulus: actual object or event in the outside world.
  • The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) is a hypothalamic neuronal nucleus that responds to stress and physiological changes.
  • Sensory stimulus causes activation of receptors to evoke a response like light, heat, sound.
  • Sensory receptors trigger neural activity resulting in a proximal stimulus.
  • Proximal stimulus in perception arises from physical stimulation that can be measured by sensory apparatus.

Mental Processes

  • Word Association game is a common word game.
  • Psychophysical testing methods analyze how stimuli relate to human perception.

Methods to Measure Thresholds

  • Method of Limits: progressively increases or decreases stimulus levels until detection changes.
  • Method of Constant Stimuli: presents different stimulus intensities randomly.
  • Method of Adjustment: observer adjusts stimulus level until detection.

Factors Affecting Performance

  • Practice effects alter performance due to repetition of tasks.
  • Order effects refer to a particular trial's position in a sequence.
  • Carry-over effects influence performance based on previous trials.

Interaural Differences

  • Interaural time difference: difference in time for sound to reach each ear.
  • Interaural level difference: difference in sound pressure levels reaching each ear.
  • The head alters sound frequencies reaching the ears differently.

Neurotransmitters

  • GABA is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.
  • Dopamine, serotonin, and others influence mood and other cognitive functions.
  • Orexin (hypocretin) controls sleep and arousal.

Cognitive Therapies

  • Cognitive Behavior Therapies (CBT) seek to adjust thoughts, feelings, behavior in addressing difficulties.
  • Opponent-process theory describes the psychological and neurological responses to stimuli like color perception in terms of opposing processes.
  • The Diathesis-stress model highlights a vulnerability-stress combination that produces mental illness.
  • Ethical research follows ethical principles to protect participants and respect their rights.

Social Constructs

  • Socioeconomic gradient exists in negative correlations with socioeconomic status.
  • Ethnographic research investigates social interactions in real social settings.
  • Comparative research compares social phenomenon across countries or cultures.
  • Flynn effect: observation of increased IQ scores over generations.
  • Emotional intelligence involves recognizing and understanding one's own emotions and those of others.
  • Egoism is a philosophical idea that self-interest guides behaviors and actions.

Social Influence and Persuasion

  • Reciprocity principle: returning favors.
  • Commitment and Consistency principle: sticking to previously made commitments.
  • Social Proof principle: following the actions of others.
  • Authority principle: obeying authority figures.
  • Liking principle: being persuaded by people who are liked.
  • Scarcity principle: perceived scarcity increases demand for items.

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