Neuroscience Chapter on Cerebral Cortex
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Questions and Answers

What is one major function of the primate cerebral cortex?

  • To store memories permanently
  • To initiate reflex actions
  • To coordinate complex behaviors and decision-making (correct)
  • To process sensory input only

What significant injury did Phineas Gage sustain?

  • A deep cut on his cheek
  • A metal rod penetrating his prefrontal cortex (correct)
  • Severe burns from gunpowder
  • A concussion from an explosion

How does spinal cord circuitry compare to the cortex in sensory-to-motor transformations?

  • Spinal cord circuitry is capable of complex decision-making
  • The cortex provides greater flexibility in sensory-to-motor transformations (correct)
  • Spinal cord circuitry is more advanced than the cortex
  • The spinal cord directly controls all muscle movements

What did Gage's physicians observe about his personality after his injury?

<p>His personality changed significantly (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is the first to receive sensory input?

<p>The spinal cord (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the role of higher mammals in sensorimotor tasks?

<p>They have developed more sophisticated means of stimulus processing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of rapid, automatic sensory-to-motor transformation?

<p>It can operate independently of the brain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Following his injury, what was Gage's condition upon returning to work?

<p>He had normal pulse and vision (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the research primarily train monkeys to categorize?

<p>Cats and dogs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many prototypes were used for each category in the study?

<p>Three prototypes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main method used to create the stimuli for categorization?

<p>Morphing program of blends (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the monkeys do to indicate they had categorized the images correctly?

<p>Release a lever (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of tasks did the researchers use in the experiment?

<p>Delayed match to category task (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the range of blends generated from the prototypes?

<p>From 100% cat to 100% dog (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What challenge did the monkeys face during the categorization task?

<p>Identifying similar looking morphs near category boundaries (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What feature characterized the morphs used in the study?

<p>They were blends of different amounts of cats and dogs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What changes are often observed in patients with frontal lobe lesions?

<p>Acquired sociopathy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a characteristic behavior of individuals with frontal lobe damage?

<p>Impulsivity and risky behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the prefrontal cortex play in relation to the sensory and motor systems?

<p>It coordinates both sensory perception and motor action. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of executive function, what is the role of the prefrontal cortex?

<p>Serving as a top-down attentional supervisor (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'perseveration' refer to in relation to frontal lobe functioning?

<p>Inability to adapt behavior to changing circumstances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is responsible for processing auditory information?

<p>Superior temporal gyrus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are actions generally initiated according to the information provided?

<p>Internally generated and often guided by stimuli. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is described by 'top-down' theories of executive function?

<p>Deliberate control over attention and action processes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines 'executive control' according to the content?

<p>The emergence of complex behaviors from neural interactions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area is identified as part of the unimodal cortex?

<p>V4 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do temporal theories explain executive function?

<p>By maintaining information within working memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of hierarchical organization in the sensory and motor systems?

<p>Higher levels of sensory processing influence lower-level motor functions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of cortex is primarily involved in generating motor commands?

<p>Primary motor cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about behavior changes in individuals post-frontal lobe damage is correct?

<p>They may exhibit gross profanity and less regard for others. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sensory area is linked to visual processing in the hierarchy?

<p>MT/V5 (middle temporal) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the action and perception relationship is accurate?

<p>Perception provides essential guidance for motor responses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of the study conducted by Wallis, Andersson, and Miller?

<p>The ability of monkeys to learn and encode abstract rules (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the recorded prefrontal neurons were identified as rule-selective?

<p>41% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which task involves identifying the object that does not match the cue?

<p>Delayed non-matching to sample rule (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the monkeys demonstrate their understanding of abstract rules?

<p>By showing success in tasks with new pictures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What method did Earl Miller and colleagues use to study categorization in monkeys?

<p>Parametrically blending images of different species (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key role of the anterior prefrontal cortex (aPFC)?

<p>Solving problems requiring integration of multiple cognitive processes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the activity observed in the prefrontal cortex regarding abstract rule encoding?

<p>It reflects the coding of abstract rules even with unfamiliar stimuli (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the connectivity of the aPFC characterized compared to other prefrontal areas?

<p>It connects primarily with other supramodal areas of cortex. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which rules were the monkeys trained to switch flexibly between?

<p>Matching and non-matching rules (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental concept of categorization as described in the findings?

<p>It involves applying rules to similar instances learned from multiple examples (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What anatomical feature makes the aPFC special compared to other areas of the prefrontal cortex?

<p>Lower cell density but higher dendritic spine density (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way has the aPFC evolved compared to other brain areas?

<p>It has evolved more rapidly than any other PFC area. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive function is primarily supported by the lateral prefrontal cortex?

<p>Rule learning and application (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What abilities allow primates to handle novel situations?

<p>Determining strategies for solving completely novel problems (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What ability reflects the primate brain's flexibility in task execution?

<p>Executing appropriate actions after a temporal gap (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the prefrontal cortex is specifically associated with contextual control?

<p>Anterior prefrontal cortex (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of operational demand engages the aPFC?

<p>When integrating results from multiple cognitive operations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do primates learn about contingencies in their environment?

<p>Antecedents to their actions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Spinal Cord Circuitry

The part of the nervous system that receives sensory input and controls movement. It is the first part of the nervous system to receive sensory information.

Rapid Sensory-to-Motor Transformation

The ability of the spinal cord to quickly convert sensory information into motor commands, often without the brain's involvement.

Sophisticated Sensory-to-Motor Transformations

More complex brain regions, like the cortex, are needed to convert sensory information into actions when the decision to act is based on understanding the meaning of the sensory information, rather than just the raw input.

Prefrontal Cortex

The part of the brain responsible for planning, complex behavior, decision-making and impulse control.

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Overriding Reflexive Behaviors

The ability to control and override automatic, instinctive reactions.

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Solving Sophisticated Sensory-Motor Transformations

The ability to solve problems that require complex sensory-motor transformations, like decision-making.

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Phineas Gage Case

A famous case demonstrating the crucial role of the prefrontal cortex in personality and behavior.

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Prefrontal Cortex Damage

The area of the brain most likely damaged in Phineas Gage's accident.

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Acquired Sociopathy

A neurological condition where individuals exhibit impulsive behavior, difficulty planning, and a lack of awareness of social norms due to damage to the frontal lobe.

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Executive Control

The ability to control and manage various cognitive processes, including planning, working memory, and self-regulation, allowing us to make deliberate choices rather than reacting impulsively.

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Working Memory

The ability to hold information in mind and manipulate it, crucial for planning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

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Top-Down Attentional Control

The frontal lobe's capacity to override automatic responses and choose actions based on internal goals and long-term plans.

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Temporal Theory of Executive Control

A theory explaining executive control by emphasizing the role of maintaining information in working memory and bridging the gap between perception and action.

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Top-Down Attentional Control

A theory of executive control that highlights the prefrontal cortex's role in directing attention and influencing the selection of actions.

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Perseveration

The inability to adjust behavior to changing circumstances, often seen in individuals with frontal lobe damage.

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Sensory Hierarchy

A type of hierarchical organization of brain areas involved in processing sensory information. For example, the visual hierarchy begins with the retina and progresses through V1, V2, V3, V4, and V5 areas. Each level processes increasingly complex information.

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Motor Hierarchy

A type of hierarchical organization of brain areas involved in controlling motor actions. For example, the motor hierarchy begins with the spinal cord and progresses through the motor cortex, premotor cortex, and prefrontal cortex. Each level controls increasingly complex movements.

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Supramodal Cortex

Areas within both sensory and motor hierarchies that process information at a general level, integrating information from multiple sensory modalities. These areas are crucial for making sense of the world.

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Unimodal Cortex

Areas within both sensory and motor hierarchies that process information from a specific sensory modality. These areas handle raw sensory inputs like light, sound, or touch.

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Hierarchical Processing

This principle states that sensory information is processed at multiple levels of abstraction. Information starting from a specific sensory input (like light for vision) is gradually integrated into more abstract representations, culminating in higher-level understanding. This allows for a more nuanced and meaningful perception of the world.

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Internally Generated Actions

Actions can be initiated internally without external stimuli. The prefrontal cortex plays a vital role in generating these internal plans. It allows us to act based on our goals and intentions, even in the absence of immediate sensory triggers.

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Stimulus-Guided Actions

Sensory information can guide actions. This means that feedback from the external world can be used to adjust our plans and behaviors. It's a crucial part of how we learn and adapt our actions based on our surroundings.

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Rule-selective neurons

Neurons in the prefrontal cortex that respond specifically to particular rules, regardless of the specific stimuli used.

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Rule Abstraction

The ability of the brain to generalize a learned rule to new situations, using the same rule with different stimuli.

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Delayed matching to sample task

A task where monkeys are trained to identify an object that matches a previously presented cue.

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Delayed non-matching to sample task

A task where monkeys are trained to identify an object that does not match a previously presented cue.

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Flexible rule switching

The ability to learn and apply rules in different contexts, showing flexibility in behavior.

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Categorization

The process of classifying objects based on shared features and applying rules to different instances.

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Contextual Control

The ability of the brain to control and modify actions based on context, rules, and goals, overriding automatic reflexes or pre-programmed responses.

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Wallis, Andersson and Miller (2001)

Studies demonstrating that the prefrontal cortex is involved in encoding abstract rules that can be used for different situations.

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Contextual Control (Specific)

A type of control that involves making decisions about what to do based on the current situation.

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Selection Control

The ability to choose between actions, often involving weighing different options and potential outcomes.

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Anterior Prefrontal Cortex (aPFC)

The area in the prefrontal cortex that is particularly involved in complex cognitive tasks, such as integrating information from different sources and making comprehensive decisions.

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aPFC Connectivity

The aPFC is unique among prefrontal areas because it is only connected to other 'higher-level' areas of the brain, not directly to sensory or motor areas.

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aPFC Evolution

The aPFC has evolved rapidly in humans, and is larger in humans compared to other primates.

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aPFC Synaptic Integration

The aPFC has a lower density of neurons but a higher density of dendritic spines, suggesting it is specialized for integrating information from various sources.

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Bridging Temporal Gaps

The ability to plan and execute actions based on future goals, even when the reward or consequence is delayed.

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Contingencies and Rules

The ability to learn new rules and apply them to different situations.

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Category Generalization

The ability to categorize new objects based on learned information, even when those objects are similar to items in other categories.

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Delayed Match to Category Task

A task where monkeys are shown two pictures, separated by a delay, and must decide whether they belong to the same category.

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Category Boundary

The point where a morph is equally likely to be classified as a cat or a dog.

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Morphing Program

A computer program that blends two images, gradually transitioning from one to the other.

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Prototype

A representation of a category that is used as a starting point for generating morphs.

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Morphs

Stimuli that are created by mixing together different prototypes, creating variations within a category.

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Category Boundary Performance

The ability to identify a new object's category, even when it's close to the boundary of another category.

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Stimuli Set

A collection of different prototypes representing variations within a category.

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Study Notes

Prefrontal Cortex: Overview

  • The prefrontal cortex is the highest level of the brain's hierarchical system for integrating sensory perception and motor actions, crucial for cognitive control.
  • It's crucial for advanced cognitive processes like flexible decision-making, novel problem solving, and controlling impulses.
  • The prefrontal cortex is uniquely connected to other areas in the brain; crucial for processing input from and sending output to different brain regions.
  • Damage to the prefrontal cortex can profoundly impact personality and behavior, as evidenced by Phineas Gage's case study.

Spinal Cord Circuitry

  • The spinal cord is the earliest part of the nervous system to receive sensory input.
  • It performs rapid automatic sensory-to-motor transformations, independent of the brain.
  • The spinal cord's circuitry is fundamental for basic reflexes and motor responses.

How the Motor System Accesses Sensory Information

  • Spinal cord circuits are basic and not capable of sophisticated sensory-to-motor transformations.
  • Higher mammals (like primates) use their cortex to smoothly transform sensory input into action with flexibility.
  • The primate cerebral cortex coordinates complex behaviors and solves problems related to sensory-motor transformations.

Phineas Gage Case Study

  • Phineas Gage was a 19th-century railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury.
  • An iron rod pierced his prefrontal cortex, leading to significant behavioral and personality changes.
  • His physician documented his now-impulsive, irreverent, and profanity-prone behavior; before and after the accident his behavior was very different.

Prefrontal Cortex Anatomy and Function

  • The prefrontal cortex is subdivided into regions impacting distinct aspects of cognitive control.
  • Prefrontal neurons play a vital role in processing information; this processing is more complex and abstract than in other brain regions.
  • The prefrontal cortex is the highest level of brain hierarchy, responsible for complex cognitive processing, involving planning, complex decision-making, and bridging temporal gaps.

Executive Control

  • Executive function enables freedom from reacting to immediate stimuli by prioritizing goals.
  • There are two main accounts, temporal theories and top-down theories, of how executive control functions.
  • Temporal theories focus on information maintenance and manipulation in working memory and the handling of cross-temporal contingencies.
  • Top-down theories are about attentional supervision in higher brain regions in order to control lower brain regions by setting goals and attending/responding to goals.

Prefrontal Cortex & Working Memory

  • The delayed response task is crucial for understanding prefrontal cortex and working memory.
  • Working memory involves applying rules to actively represent information not presently perceived.
  • Delayed matching-to-sample tasks demonstrate the importance of prefrontal cortex in retaining information for action selection.

Prefrontal Cortex & Working Memory - Neural Activity

  • Prefrontal neuronal activity reflects the active maintenance of information during working memory tasks.
  • Delay period activity has been shown to reflect information retention in prefrontal cortex.
  • Some neurons show sustained activity during the delay period, related to keeping track of information and making selections.

Distraction-Resistant Memory & Prefrontal Cortex

  • Prefrontal cortex area 46 is associated with a distractor-resistant memory.
  • This is shown in tests where sustaining information over a delay is related to activity in the prefrontal cortex.

Abstractions of Rules and Learning

  • The brain can abstract rules as representations based on the similarities of different experiences.
  • The prefrontal cortex helps bridge the gap between actions in the moment and planned actions to achieve long-term goals.

Prefrontal Cortex and Encoding Rules

  • Flexible primate behavior is dependent on rules that can be applied to various situations.
  • Prefrontal cortex neurons might encode abstract rules that allow the brain to apply those rules to various situations.
  • Through tasks like matching to sample, and non-matching to sample tasks, understanding how rules are encoded and applied in the PFC becomes possible.

Rule Selective Neurons

  • Prefrontal neurons code for rules through processes reflecting and differentiating between different situations.
  • Prefrontal cortex neurons selectively respond to specific rules in different contexts.
  • Researchers identified that rule-selective neurons were the predominant type in the prefrontal cortex.

Categorisation and Perceptual Categories

  • The prefrontal cortex enables categorisation by processing information about the similarities between stimuli across various instances.
  • Monkeys have been trained on categorization tasks involving distinguishing between categories (like "cat" vs. "dog").

Prefrontal Cortex and Working Memory - Further Considerations

  • There are different models to explain PFC function, providing varied perspectives on how the prefrontal cortex processes information.
  • How flexible is coding in PFC neurons? The flexibility of coding in specific prefrontal neurons is being studied.
  • Further investigation is needed into how other brain areas are interconnected with the prefrontal cortex.

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PS3141 Lecture 1: Prefrontal Cortex 2024-2025 PDF

Description

Test your knowledge on the functions of the primate cerebral cortex and the intriguing case of Phineas Gage. This quiz explores sensory-to-motor transformations, as well as personality changes following brain injury. Challenge yourself with questions that highlight key neuroscientific concepts.

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