Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the locus coeruleus?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the locus coeruleus?
- Acetylcholine
- Noradrenaline (correct)
- Dopamine
- Serotonin
Glutamate is primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Glutamate is primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
False (B)
What type of receptors are α1 and β1,2 receptors classified as?
What type of receptors are α1 and β1,2 receptors classified as?
excitatory receptors
Noradrenaline is associated with the ______ brain region.
Noradrenaline is associated with the ______ brain region.
Match the following brain regions with their associated neurotransmitter:
Match the following brain regions with their associated neurotransmitter:
Which metabotropic glutamate receptor group is located post-synaptically?
Which metabotropic glutamate receptor group is located post-synaptically?
What type of receptor activates a second messenger system inside neurons?
What type of receptor activates a second messenger system inside neurons?
Lipid and peptide transmitters are released via electrical signaling.
Lipid and peptide transmitters are released via electrical signaling.
What is the primary function of GABA in the central nervous system?
What is the primary function of GABA in the central nervous system?
Ionotropic receptors cause ion channels to open directly upon activation.
Ionotropic receptors cause ion channels to open directly upon activation.
Name one ion channel that is voltage dependent.
Name one ion channel that is voltage dependent.
The process of developing new pharmaceutical drugs is known as ______.
The process of developing new pharmaceutical drugs is known as ______.
TRPV1 is activated by ______ and capsaicin.
TRPV1 is activated by ______ and capsaicin.
Which type of receptor can act as both an autoreceptor and a heteroreceptor?
Which type of receptor can act as both an autoreceptor and a heteroreceptor?
Match the ion channel category with its associated feature:
Match the ion channel category with its associated feature:
Which of the following is a function of autoreceptors?
Which of the following is a function of autoreceptors?
Heteroreceptors are the same as autoreceptors.
Heteroreceptors are the same as autoreceptors.
What is the difference between EPSPs and IPSPs?
What is the difference between EPSPs and IPSPs?
_______ channels are primarily responsible for generating action potentials.
_______ channels are primarily responsible for generating action potentials.
Which of the following ions typically flow through CaV channels?
Which of the following ions typically flow through CaV channels?
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Study Notes
Glial Cells
- Astrocytes: support neurons, maintain chemical environment, blood brain barrier
- Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin in the CNS
- Schwann cells: produce myelin in the PNS
- Microglia: immune cells of the CNS
Synaptic Transmission
- Presynaptic membrane: release neurotransmitters
- Postsynaptic membrane: receptors bind neurotransmitters
- Autoreceptors: receptors on the presynaptic terminal that bind the neurotransmitter released by the same neuron
- Heteroreceptors: receptors on the presynaptic terminal that bind a neurotransmitter released by a different neuron
Ionotropic vs. Metabotropic Receptors
- Ionotropic receptors: directly open ion channels after ligand binding, fast response
- Metabotropic receptors: activate a second messenger system inside the neuron, leading to channel opening, slower response
Neurotransmission Termination
- Reuptake: neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic terminal using transporter proteins
- Enzymatic degradation: neurotransmitters are broken down by enzymes
- Diffusion: neurotransmitters diffuse away from the synapse
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
- EPSP: depolarizing potential, increases likelihood of action potential
- IPSP: hyperpolarizing potential, decreases likelihood of action potential
- Voltage-dependent ion channels: open based on membrane potential
- Ligand-gated ion channels: open when a ligand binds to the receptor
Ion Channels
- Voltage-dependent channels:
- Sodium channels (NaV): activated by low (negative) voltage, responsible for the rising phase of the action potential
- Calcium channels (CaV): activated by high and low voltage, roles in neurotransmitter release and neuronal plasticity
- Potassium channels (Kv): activated by high (positive) voltage, repolarize the membrane after an action potential
- Ionotropic/Ligand-gated channels:
- P2X: activated by ATP, permeable to cations
- TRP: activated by various stimuli including heat, cold, and environmental toxins
- nAChR: activated by acetylcholine, permeable to cations
Glutamate Receptors
- NMDA: activated by glutamate and glycine, permeable to sodium, potassium, and calcium, involved in learning and memory
- AMPA: activated by glutamate, permeable to sodium and potassium, fast-acting
- Kainate: activated by glutamate, contributes to synaptic plasticity
TRP Channels
- TRPV1: activated by heat and capsaicin (spicy chili pepper)
- TRPA1: activated by mustard oil, wasabi, and environmental toxins
- TRPM8: activated by menthol and cool/cold temperatures
Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine (Ach):
- Origin: basal forebrain, hippocampus, brainstem
- Receptor: nicotinic (nAchR) and muscarinic (mAChR)
- Inhibition: muscarinic autoreceptors
- Dopamine (DA):
- Origin: substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area
- Receptor: D1-D5
- Inhibition: D2 autoreceptors
- Noradrenaline (NA or NE):
- Origin: locus coeruleus, brainstem
- Receptor: alpha (α1, α2) and beta (β1, β2)
- Inhibition: alpha2 (α2) autoreceptors
- Histamine:
- Origin: tuberoinfundibular nucleus (TMN)
- Receptor: H1-H4
- Inhibition: H3 autoreceptors
- Serotonin (5-HT):
- Origin: raphe nuclei, brainstem
- Receptor: 5-HT1-5-HT7
- Inhibition: 5-HT1 autoreceptors
- Glutamate:
- Function: excitatory
- Location: throughout the CNS
- GABA:
- Function: inhibitory
- Location: throughout the CNS
- Metabotropic glutamate receptors:
- Group I (mGluR1, mGluR5): postsynaptic, excitatory
- Group II (mGluR2, mGluR3): presynaptic, inhibitory autoreceptors
- Group III (mGluR4, mGluR6, mGluR7, mGluR8): presynaptic, inhibitory heteroreceptors
Lipid and Peptide Transmitters
- Lipid transmitters: released from phospholipid membranes, retrograde signaling
- Example: endocannabinoids (anandamide)
- Peptide transmitters: synthesized as larger proteins and cleaved into smaller peptides before release
- Example: endorphins, substance P
Drug Discovery
- Preclinical studies: animal testing
- Phase I clinical trials: safety and dosage in healthy subjects
- Phase II clinical trials: effectiveness and optimal dosage in target population
- Phase III clinical trials: large-scale trials comparing drug to standard treatment
- Phase IV clinical trials: post-marketing surveillance to monitor long-term effects and identify adverse reactions
Text Subsections
- Chapter 2:
- LO 2.3: Cellular Structures
- LO 2.10: Neurotransmitters
- LO 2.11: Synthesis and Storage
- LO 2.12: Release
- LO 2.13: Synaptic Communication
- LO 2.14: Receptor Binding
- LO 2.15: Neurotransmission Termination
- LO 2.16: Receptor Signaling
- Chapter 4:
- LO 4.10: Drug Discovery and Development
- LO 4.11: Drug Administration
- LO 4.12: Drug Metabolism
- LO 4.13: Drug Distribution
- LO 4.14: Drug Excretion
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