Neuroscience and Mammalian Cortical Organization

Organisms' brain sizes are ranked based on their weight in grams.

A fundamental neural pathway within the brain.

The ability of crows to understand and interact socially with each other.

Information about the authors and their affiliations (e.g., where they work).

A numerical value (grams) likely representing a brain weight.

Prefix related to the body (somatic).

The way that neural fibers are organized in the brain.

The main author in scientific papers.

A process that repeats steps until a goal is achieved.

A recurring pattern or design in a circuit.

Controlling and changing objects' positions or states.

Objects that exist in a specific time.

Reaching a desired outcome.

A research paper published in a scientific journal, often reporting experiments.

A group of scientists who conducted research.

The specific publication details or journal and article.

The avian pallium comprises a sensory DVR and supra- and infragranular layers (II/III), and associative layers, and the Wulst (light green).

The mammalian neocortex has more complex layers (IV,II/III and V/VI) compared to the avian pallium, which focuses on sensory and associative functions.

The Wulst (light green) in birds has a unique architecture resembling the sophisticated circuitry in certain brain regions of mammals.

Sensory function, located in the avian pallium.

These layers (II/III) are part of the avian pallium and also present in mammals but with a much more complex organizational pattern.

One of the layers in the avian pallium, marked purple on the diagram.

These layers are part of the avian pallium, as well as mammals. They display more sophisticated organization.

Sophisticated neural connections are present in specific brain regions.

Organs distributed throughout the body that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream. They are not embryologically connected but share a functional link.

Chemical messengers that bind to cell receptors (on cell walls or inside cells) to trigger responses. They are present in very small concentrations (parts per trillion) but have significant effects.

Specific organs or tissues that respond to particular hormones. They have the necessary receptors to bind and react to the hormone.

An endocrine gland located in the neck. It produces thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) that regulate metabolism, growth, and other processes.

Thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine and thyroxine) that are crucial for regulating metabolism, growth, and development in vertebrates.

An essential mineral required for the production of thyroid hormones.

A condition caused by thyroid hormone deficiency during development, resulting in stunted growth and mental retardation.

A condition caused by overactive thyroid gland, leading to increased metabolism, weight loss, and other symptoms.

Chemicals that interfere with the endocrine system, mimicking or blocking hormones. They can cause birth defects and reproductive issues.

A network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, regulating growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Fish with characteristics of both male and female reproductive systems, often caused by endocrine disruptors.

The presence of endocrine disruptors in the Potomac River, affecting the fish living there.

More than one-third of fruit consumed in the EU contains residues of endocrine disrupting pesticides.

Endocrine disruptors that can alter the sexual development of organisms.

Characteristics of hormones: they act on specific targets, are effective at small concentrations, and remain stable in the body.

A hormone produced by the adrenal medulla, responsible for the "fight or flight" response. It prepares the body for action, threats, and short-term challenges by increasing heart rate, blood sugar, and blood flow to muscles.

A hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal medulla. It acts alongside epinephrine to prepare the body for action, augmenting the actions of the sympathetic nervous system.

A vital organ with both exocrine (digestive enzymes) and endocrine (hormone production) functions. Its endocrine role involves regulating blood sugar levels through insulin and glucagon.

A hormone produced by the pancreas that lowers blood sugar levels by promoting glucose uptake by cells and the storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver.

A hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood sugar levels by stimulating the release of stored glycogen from the liver.

A metabolic disorder characterized by a lack of insulin production. This leads to high blood sugar levels, as cells cannot effectively use glucose, resulting in tissue wasting and other complications.

A gland in the brain that produces melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles, seasonal rhythms, and reproductive cycles. Melatonin release is increased in darkness, promoting sleepiness.

The kidneys produce two important hormones: 1) Renin, which regulates blood pressure, and 2) Erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates red blood cell production.

The thyroid gland influences metabolism (oxygen consumption, basal metabolic rate, and heat production in endotherms), growth (under-active thyroid leads to cretinism while over-active leads to Grave's disease), molting (skin, hair, feathers), reproduction, and metamorphosis in amphibians.

A hormone produced by the ultimobranchial body, calcitonin reduces calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood. It also promotes bone deposition.

Parathormone (PTH) is secreted by the parathyroid gland and increases calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood. It acts on the kidneys (retaining calcium), intestines (enhancing absorption), and bones (stimulating resorption).

The ultimobranchial body and parathyroid play vital roles in maintaining proper calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood. This is crucial for various functions such as building structures (eggshells, bones, antlers), maintaining bone integrity, and supporting muscle function.

Steroids are a class of hormones released by the adrenal gland's cortex. The most common types include aldosterone (affects kidney function and water/sodium retention), glucocorticoids (influence carbohydrate metabolism and blood sugar levels), and androgens (promote protein synthesis, muscle growth, and some convert to female versions).

The adrenal gland is a crucial endocrine organ found close to the kidneys. It consists of two parts: the cortex (derived from splanchnic mesoderm) and the medulla (originating from neural crest cells). Its hormone production is essential for diverse functions within the body.

Steroid abuse can have severe consequences, including premature adulthood, damage to kidneys, liver, and heart, mood swings, acne, diminished production of natural hormones (leading to issues like sterility), and development of secondary male features in females (deep voice, masculine build).

This phrase captures the main types of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex: aldosterone (affects salt balance), glucocorticoids (regulate sugar levels), and androgens (influence sex characteristics).

A small but important endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. It secretes a variety of hormones that regulate numerous bodily functions.

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates water balance in the body by controlling the reabsorption of water in the kidneys.

A hormone released by the pituitary gland that is involved in social bonding, love, and childbirth. It also plays a role in milk production.

A group of hormones, including LH and FSH, that are produced by the pituitary gland and regulate the function of the gonads (testes and ovaries).

The primary male sex hormone produced in the testes. It plays a vital role in the development of male reproductive organs, secondary sex characteristics, and sperm production.

Female sex hormones produced in the ovaries. Estrogen prepares the uterus for pregnancy, while progesterone further prepares the uterus and initiates maternal behavior.

The removal of testes or ovaries, often performed on domestic animals to alter their behavior or improve meat quality.

When an endocrine disruptor binds to a cell receptor, mimicking a natural hormone and triggering an inappropriate response.

When an endocrine disruptor blocks the action of a natural hormone by preventing it from binding to its receptor.

A river in the US, heavily contaminated with endocrine disruptors, causing intersex fish in its ecosystem.

Chemicals that act as endocrine disruptors, entering the environment and affecting living organisms.

They interfere with the delicate balance of hormones, leading to various health issues like birth defects, reproductive problems, and disruption of the natural environment.