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Questions and Answers
What is the primary abnormality associated with the amyloidogenic pathway in Alzheimer's disease?
What is the primary abnormality associated with the amyloidogenic pathway in Alzheimer's disease?
- Decreased aggregation of amyloid beta
- Increased production of amyloid beta Aβ42 (correct)
- Increased production of tau protein
- Decreased production of amyloid beta
What is brain atrophy primarily associated with in Alzheimer's disease?
What is brain atrophy primarily associated with in Alzheimer's disease?
- Increase in fluid-filled spaces in the brain
- Loss of neurons and connections between them (correct)
- Overproduction of dopaminergic neurons
- Reduction of amyloid beta levels
Which region of the brain is NOT mentioned as being affected by Alzheimer’s disease?
Which region of the brain is NOT mentioned as being affected by Alzheimer’s disease?
- Substantia nigra (correct)
- Cerebral cortex
- Ventricles
- Hippocampus
What is one of the primary symptoms of Parkinson’s disease?
What is one of the primary symptoms of Parkinson’s disease?
What happens to dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease?
What happens to dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease?
What role do tau proteins play in neurons?
What role do tau proteins play in neurons?
What characterizes the amyloid beta Aβ42 compared to Aβ40 in Alzheimer's disease?
What characterizes the amyloid beta Aβ42 compared to Aβ40 in Alzheimer's disease?
What is one potential consequence of tau protein mutations in neurons?
What is one potential consequence of tau protein mutations in neurons?
What symptom is least commonly associated with glaucoma?
What symptom is least commonly associated with glaucoma?
Which type of glaucoma is characterized by an open drainage angle but blocked trabecular meshwork?
Which type of glaucoma is characterized by an open drainage angle but blocked trabecular meshwork?
What is a common risk factor for developing glaucoma?
What is a common risk factor for developing glaucoma?
Which type of glaucoma can occur even when the eye pressure is within normal limits?
Which type of glaucoma can occur even when the eye pressure is within normal limits?
What effect does increased eye pressure in glaucoma have on the optic nerve?
What effect does increased eye pressure in glaucoma have on the optic nerve?
What does the RNFL thickness map represent?
What does the RNFL thickness map represent?
What indicates thin RNFL due to nerve fiber loss on the RNFL thickness map?
What indicates thin RNFL due to nerve fiber loss on the RNFL thickness map?
In patients with Alzheimer's disease, what is primarily measured in the retinal analysis?
In patients with Alzheimer's disease, what is primarily measured in the retinal analysis?
What is the role of amyloid-targeting antibodies like aducanumab?
What is the role of amyloid-targeting antibodies like aducanumab?
Which quadrants are noted for significant RNFL thinning in the patient case example?
Which quadrants are noted for significant RNFL thinning in the patient case example?
What is a common method used in biomarker-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases?
What is a common method used in biomarker-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases?
What effect do antibodies have when they bind to harmful proteins?
What effect do antibodies have when they bind to harmful proteins?
What is the significance of the RNFL thickness graph?
What is the significance of the RNFL thickness graph?
What is the primary function of aqueous humor in the eye?
What is the primary function of aqueous humor in the eye?
Which of the following statements is true about vitreous humor?
Which of the following statements is true about vitreous humor?
What role does the conjunctiva play in eye health?
What role does the conjunctiva play in eye health?
Which part of the eye is responsible for producing aqueous humor?
Which part of the eye is responsible for producing aqueous humor?
Which of the following accurately describes the drainage of aqueous humor?
Which of the following accurately describes the drainage of aqueous humor?
Which component of the eye is primarily responsible for lubrication and nourishment?
Which component of the eye is primarily responsible for lubrication and nourishment?
What is the consequence of damage to the optic nerve in glaucoma?
What is the consequence of damage to the optic nerve in glaucoma?
Which fluid fills the anterior chamber of the eye?
Which fluid fills the anterior chamber of the eye?
What is the role of inhibitory interneurons in the modulation of pain signals?
What is the role of inhibitory interneurons in the modulation of pain signals?
How does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contribute to the effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation?
How does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contribute to the effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation?
What does a decreased retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness indicate?
What does a decreased retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness indicate?
What imaging technique is primarily used to measure RNFL thickness?
What imaging technique is primarily used to measure RNFL thickness?
How is the cup-to-disc ratio calculated?
How is the cup-to-disc ratio calculated?
What condition could cause increased thickness of the retinal nerve fiber layer?
What condition could cause increased thickness of the retinal nerve fiber layer?
Which measurement indicates an abnormal cup-to-disc ratio suggesting potential optic nerve damage?
Which measurement indicates an abnormal cup-to-disc ratio suggesting potential optic nerve damage?
Which of the following is true about a healthy RNFL thickness measurement?
Which of the following is true about a healthy RNFL thickness measurement?
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Study Notes
Alzheimer's Disease
- Abnormal amyloid beta production, especially Aβ42, is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease.
- Aβ42 is longer, more hydrophobic, and prone to aggregation than Aβ40, contributing to plaque formation.
- Aβ42 is produced by γ secretase cutting the APP at the wrong point.
- Brain atrophy, particularly in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and ventricles, is a consequence of Alzheimer's disease.
Tau Protein
- Tau proteins bind to microtubules, stabilizing them and maintaining cell shape.
- Hyperphosphorylation of tau at T181 and T231 can disrupt its function, leading to tau tangles.
Parkinson's Disease
- Parkinson's disease primarily affects motor function, characterized by tremors, rigidity, and slow movement.
- Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, the part of the brain responsible for releasing dopamine, contributes to movement initiation difficulties.
- Lewy bodies are inclusions in dopaminergic neurons that contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.
Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer (RNFL)
- RNFL thickness is typically measured using optical coherence tomography (OCT).
- RNFL thinning indicates loss of retinal ganglion cells and their axons, a common finding in glaucoma.
Glaucoma
- Glaucoma is a group of diseases characterized by optic nerve damage, leading to irreversible vision loss.
- Open-angle glaucoma is the most common type, where the drainage angle remains open but the trabecular meshwork becomes less efficient, leading to increased intraocular pressure.
- Angle-closure glaucoma occurs when the iris bulges partially blocking the drainage angle.
- Normal tension glaucoma involves optic nerve damage despite normal eye pressure, suggesting heightened optic nerve sensitivity.
Biomarker-Based Therapies
- Antibodies targeting biomarkers like amyloid-beta are used to neutralize harmful proteins and facilitate their clearance by the immune system.
- Aducanumab is an amyloid-targeting antibody for Alzheimer's disease, aimed at slowing disease progression but not reversing existing symptoms.
Eye Fluids
- Aqueous humor is produced by the ciliary body, fills the anterior chamber, and drains through the trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal.
- Vitreous humor fills the vitreous cavity, maintaining the eye's shape and optical clarity.
- Tear fluid, produced by the lacrimal glands, lubricates, protects, nourishes, and clears the eye.
RNFL Measurement
- RNFL thickness values within the normal limits indicate a healthy retinal nerve fiber layer.
- Increased thickness may suggest conditions like retinal vein occlusion or inflammation.
- Decreased thickness indicates loss of ganglion cells and their axons, as observed in glaucoma.
Cup-to-Disc Ratio
- The cup-to-disc ratio is calculated by dividing the diameter of the optic nerve cup by the diameter of the disc.
- An increased cup-to-disc ratio suggests increased cupping of the optic disc, which may be indicative of optic nerve damage.
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