Neurolinguistics and Language Processing

Neurolinguistics and Language Processing

• Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the brain, dating back to the 19th century.
• The Phineas Gage accident in 1848 showed that language abilities are not located in the front of the brain.

Language Localization and Functions

• Language functions are primarily carried out by the left hemisphere of the brain.
• The localization view suggests that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different language functions, such as Wernicke's area for comprehension and Broca's area for speech production.
• The language processing pathway involves:
  • Hearing and comprehending words in Wernicke's area
  • Transferring signals to Broca's area for speech preparation
  • Sending signals to the motor cortex for articulation

Language Storage and Retrieval

• The brain stores language knowledge using metaphors, such as the "pathway" or "dictionary" metaphors.
• The mental lexicon is organized by semantic and phonological information, with words retrieved through a network of associations.
• The Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) phenomenon shows that speakers can recall words with similar meanings and sounds, but struggle to retrieve the exact word.

Aphasia and Language Impairments

• Aphasia is an impairment of language function due to localized brain damage, leading to difficulties in understanding and producing language.
• There are different types of aphasia, including:
  • Broca's aphasia (motor aphasia): impaired speaking with preserved comprehension
  • Wernicke's aphasia (sensory aphasia): fluent speaking with impaired comprehension
  • Conduction aphasia: difficulty repeating words and phrases

Language Acquisition and Development

• Language acquisition occurs rapidly during childhood, with children developing language skills through interaction with caregivers and older children.
• The language acquisition schedule is similar across children, with milestones such as:
  • Cooing and babbling (0-6 months)
  • One-word stage (12-18 months)
  • Two-word stage (18-24 months)
  • Telegraphic speech (2-2.5 years)
• Children develop language skills through social interaction, with adults and caregivers providing feedback and confirming communication.

Critical Period and Lateralization

• The critical period for language acquisition is generally between birth and puberty, when the brain is most receptive to language input.
• Lateralization refers to the specialization of the left hemisphere for language processing, with the right hemisphere responsible for non-verbal tasks.
• Dichotic listening tests demonstrate the left-ear advantage for speech sounds and the right-ear advantage for non-verbal sounds.### The Acquisition Process
• Children actively construct their own language from what they hear around them, rather than being explicitly taught.
• Adults do not provide direct instruction on how to speak the language, and children do not simply imitate adult speech.
• Children understand what adults are saying, but have their own way of expressing themselves.
• Adult corrections are not a significant factor in shaping a child's speech production.
• Word play and interaction with others are important elements in a child's linguistic development.

Developing Morphology

• By 2.5 years old, children start using inflectional and functional morphemes, such as the -ing form and prepositions.
• The -s form for regular plurals and the possessive inflection -'s are acquired next.
• Irregular plurals and past tense forms are learned, with some overgeneralization.
• The regular past tense forms with -ed and the present tense -s are acquired later.

Developing Syntax

• Two structures acquired in a regular way are the formation of questions and the use of negatives.
• There are three stages of question formation: adding a wh-form, using rising intonation, and inverting the auxiliary verb.
• Negatives are first formed by adding No or Not, then don't and can't, and finally other auxiliary forms.
• The typical Stage 1 forms disappear, and isn't is acquired late.

Developing Semantics

• Children often overextend the meaning of words based on similarities, such as shape, sound, and size.
• The semantic development is a process of overextension, followed by narrowing down the application of each term as more words are learned.
• Children tend to use "middle" level terms in hyponymous sets, such as dog rather than animal or terrier.

Later Developments

• Antonymous relations, such as more/less and before/after, are acquired after the age of five.
• The ability to produce complex structures and extended discourse is acquired later.
• By age five, children have completed the greater part of the basic language acquisition process.

Innatist Theory

• The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is an innate capacity for language acquisition.
• Children have innate knowledge of basic grammatical structure that is the basis for all languages.
• The LAD gives humans a natural propensity to organize spoken language in various grammatical ways.
• Language structure is hardwired as a kind of "Universal Grammar" (UG).
• The critical period is essential for first language acquisition.

The Role of Input and Rules

• Input from the environment is crucial for language acquisition.
• The role of rules and schooling in language learning is limited, as they teach a literary standard that differs from the language system in our heads.### Second Language Acquisition/Learning (SLA)
• Distinction between Foreign Language (FL) and Second Language (SL) settings:
  • FL: learning a language not spoken in the surrounding community (e.g., Japanese students learning English in Japan)
  • SL: learning a language spoken in the surrounding community (e.g., Japanese students learning English in the USA)
• Distinction between Acquisition and Learning:
  • Acquisition: gradual development of language ability through natural use in communicative situations (often without a teacher)
  • Learning: conscious process of accumulating knowledge about language features, such as vocabulary and grammar (often in an institutional setting)

Acquisition Barriers

• Lack of time, focus, and incentive can undermine L2 learning attempts
• Even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adults seem to reach native-like proficiency in using an L2
• Some features of an L2, such as vocabulary and grammar, may be easier to learn than others, such as pronunciation (Joseph Conrad phenomenon)
• Without early experience using the sounds and intonation of the L2, even highly proficient adult learners may retain an accent

The Age Factor

• The optimal age for L2 learning may be between 10 and 16 years old, when the flexibility of our inherent capacity for language has not been completely lost, and cognitive skills allow for effective analysis of the L2
• Teenagers may be quicker and more effective L2 learners in the classroom than younger children
• The dominance of L1 can be particularly strong in terms of pronunciation

Affective Factors

• Self-consciousness and lack of empathy with the target culture can create a barrier to acquisition
• Negative feelings, such as stress, discomfort, or self-doubt, can impede L2 learning
• Learners with personality traits like self-confidence, low anxiety, and a positive self-image tend to overcome difficulties more effectively

Focus on Teaching Methods

• Grammar-Translation Method:
  • Treats L2 learning like an academic subject
  • Emphasizes vocabulary lists, grammar rules, and written language
  • Lacks emphasis on conversational aspects
• Audiolingual Method:
  • Emphasizes spoken language and systematic presentation of L2 structures
  • Involves language lab drills and practice
  • Critics argue that it lacks resemblance to actual spoken language use and can be boring
• Communicative Approaches:
  • Emphasize language functions and authentic communication
  • Organize lessons around real-life concepts and tasks
  • Provide more appropriate materials for L2 learning with a specific purpose
• Task-Based Learning:
  • Involves interactive tasks and activities to promote L2 use
  • Assumes that learners will improve their fluency by using the L2 to achieve a goal
  • Results show more and better L2 use by learners

Contrastive Analysis

• Study and comparison of two languages to identify structural differences and similarities
• Goal: predict linguistic difficulties experienced during L2 acquisition

Focus on the Learner

• Shift from concern with the teacher, textbook, and method to an interest in the learner and the acquisition process
• Errors are seen as an indication of the natural L2 acquisition process
• Transfer (cross-linguistic influence) can occur when using sounds, expressions, or structures from the L1 in the L2

Interlanguage

• Language produced by L2 learners contains "errors" that seem to have no connection to the forms of either the L1 or L2
• Evidence suggests an in-between system (interlanguage) used in L2 acquisition, which is inherently variable and has its own rules
• Interlanguage is the basis of all L2 production and can fossilize if learners do not progress beyond it

Motivation

• Instrumental motivation: learning the L2 for a specific goal or purpose
• Integrative motivation: learning the L2 for social purposes and to become an accepted member of the target culture
• Success in L2 communication can motivate learners to continue learning

Input and Output

• Input: language that the learner is exposed to, which should be comprehensible
• Output: opportunity to produce comprehensible language in meaningful interaction
• Negotiated input: L2 material acquired through interaction and requests for clarification

Communicative Competence

• General ability to use language accurately, appropriately, and flexibly
• Components:
  • Grammatical competence: accurate use of words and structures
  • Sociolinguistic competence: ability to use language appropriately in social contexts
  • Strategic competence: ability to organize a message effectively and compensate for difficulties

Krashen's Monitor Theory

• Children acquire language almost automatically, but it's difficult for older learners to acquire another language
• Krashen's Monitor Theory attempts to explain this difference

Explore the relationship between language and the brain, including language localization and functions in the left hemisphere.