Pharma; Neuro
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?

  • Fight or Flight response
  • Regulation of heart rate and contraction
  • Voluntary muscle movement
  • Rest and Repose, energy-conserving activities (correct)

    • What type of drugs affect the Sympathetic Nervous System?

  • Adrenergic (correct)
  • Anti-adrenergic
  • Anti-cholinergic
  • Cholinergic

    • What is the role of Neurotransmitters in the Autonomic Nervous System?

  • Glandular secretion
  • Regulation of heart rate and contraction
  • Voluntary muscle movement
  • Transmission of neural impulses (correct)

    • What is the effect of Cholinergic drugs on the Autonomic Nervous System?

    <p>Stimulation of the Parasympathetic Nervous System</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nervous Systems?

    <p>One system is stimulated, the other is inhibited</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of Anti-adrenergic drugs on the Autonomic Nervous System?

    <p>Inhibition of the Sympathetic Nervous System</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Autonomic Nervous System?

    <p>Regulation of heart rate and contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary neurotransmitter involved in the Parasympathetic Nervous System?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron carries electrical impulses away from the CNS?

    <p>Motor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dendrites in a neuron?

    <p>To receive messages and carry them toward the cell body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the space where neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and bind to receptors on another neuron?

    <p>Synaptic cleft</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

    <p>To transmit information between the CNS and the periphery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron carries impulses from one neuron to another?

    <p>Associative neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the part of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body?

    <p>Axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central nervous system (CNS)?

    <p>To integrate and process information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of neurotransmitters?

    <p>To facilitate the movement of an impulse from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Promote rest and relaxation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a chemical messenger in a chemical synapse?

    <p>To transmit signals across a synapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of drugs are used to mimic the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Cholinergic drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is associated with the Parasympathetic Nervous System?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility?

    <p>Beta-1 receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of alpha-2 receptors in the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Skeletal muscle constriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of anti-cholinergic drugs on the nervous system?

    <p>They bind to receptor sites and prevent neurotransmitter binding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is involved in the regulation of anxiety?

    <p>GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of sympathomimetic drugs?

    <p>Stimulation of the release of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug is used to treat gastroparesis?

    <p>Parasympathomimetic drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of a sympathomimetic drug?

    <p>To mimic the effects of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a cholinergic drug?

    <p>It mimics the effects of acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Sedatives provide more pain relief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an anti-adrenergic drug on the nervous system?

    <p>It binds to receptor sites and prevents neurotransmitter binding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of local anesthetics?

    <p>Blocking of pain receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is involved in the regulation of mood and plays a central role in positive reinforcement and dependency?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Reversal is possible and they provide some mild analgesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following drugs is a tranquilizer only and has no sedative properties?

    <p>Acepromazine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>Enhance the activity of CNS inhibitory neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Pain management and analgesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following receptors is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>Cats are more sensitive to their effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>Act as a cyclohexamine, producing dissociative anesthesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of Reversal Agents in veterinary medicine?

    <p>To reverse the effect of anesthetics and sedatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle contractions in motor neurons?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of sympatholytic drugs on the nervous system?

    <p>They inhibit the effect of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a sympathomimetic drug?

    <p>Stimulates the release of epinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Sedatives are used to treat insomnia, while tranquilizers are used to treat anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of anesthetic drug is used to treat gastroparesis?

    <p>Cholinergic drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is involved in the regulation of mood and plays a central role in positive reinforcement and dependency?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of phenothiazines?

    <p>They block the receptors of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>Enhancing the activity of GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They provide some mild analgesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility?

    <p>Beta-1 receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following drugs is a tranquilizer only and has no sedative properties?

    <p>Acepromazine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Phenothiazines?

    <p>Blocking dopamine receptors in the CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Sedatives depress the CNS, while tranquilizers calm the animal without depressing the CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Analgesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following receptors is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>Increased sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>To enable neurotransmission between neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug is used to mimic the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Cholinergic drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of alpha-2 agonists in the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Stimulating the release of norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of sympathomimetic drugs?

    <p>Mimicking the effects of adrenaline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following receptors is responsible for the dilation of arterioles and veins in the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Beta-2 receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility?

    <p>Beta-1 receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of parasympathomimetic drugs?

    <p>Mimicking the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a cholinergic drug?

    <p>Promoting rest and relaxation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following anesthetic drugs works by blocking pain receptors at the site of action and preventing nerve impulses from being transmitted back to the CNS?

    <p>Local anesthetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between tranquilizers and sedatives?

    <p>Sedatives offer increased analgesia or pain relief as compared to tranquilizers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Sedatives are used for insomnia, while tranquilizers are used for anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>Enhancing the activity of GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following categories of anesthetic drugs includes drugs that work by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters?

    <p>Phenothiazines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Pain relief and analgesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of sympatholytic drugs?

    <p>Blocking the effect of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is involved in the regulation of anxiety and plays a central role in positive reinforcement and dependency?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurotransmitters in the nervous system?

    <p>To facilitate the movement of impulses from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug is used to mimic the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Cholinergic drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Sedatives are used to induce sleep, while tranquilizers are used to calm anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of local anesthetics?

    <p>Blocking the transmission of pain signals to the CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility?

    <p>Beta-1 receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>Enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They have a shorter duration of action and produce less sedation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a phenothiazine?

    <p>Acepromazine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug is used to treat anxiety by enhancing the effect of GABA?

    <p>Benzodiazepines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of alpha2-agonists?

    <p>Inhibiting the release of norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>Respiratory depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>Antagonizing the NMDA receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu opioid receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Pain management</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Less cardiovascular depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following drugs is a tranquilizer only and has no sedative properties?

    <p>Acepromazine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>They bind to GABA receptors, increasing chloride ion influx</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They have a more specific mechanism of action, reducing side effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>They can cause renally-mediated toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>They bind to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, blocking glutamate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Pain management</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following receptors is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines in terms of GABA?

    <p>They increase the binding of GABA to its receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using Barbiturates over other anesthetic agents?

    <p>They have a shorter duration of action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>They enhance the activity of CNS inhibitory neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They have a reversal agent available</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>They are extremely sensitive to this class of drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>They dissociate the thalamocortical and limbic systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>As an analgesic agent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following receptors is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of phenothiazines?

    <p>They block dopamine receptors in the CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of Reversal Agents in veterinary medicine?

    <p>To reverse the effects of anesthetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines in the nervous system?

    <p>They enhance the activity of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They have a more specific mechanism of action, reducing the risk of side effects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>They can cause respiratory depression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>They block the NMDA receptor, leading to a disconnection between the consciousness and the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Opioids in the nervous system?

    <p>They bind to opioid receptors, reducing the transmission of pain signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Anesthesia and pain management.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following receptors is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu opioid receptor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines in treating anxiety disorders?

    <p>They enhance the activity of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, reducing anxiety.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>Increasing the activity of GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility?

    <p>Beta-1 receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They have a wider therapeutic index</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Barbiturates?

    <p>Enhancing the activity of GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of anesthetic drug is used to treat gastroparesis?

    <p>Metoclopramide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>Blocking the NMDA receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Activating Mu receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of sympathomimetic drugs?

    <p>They mimic the effects of sympathetic stimulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a reversal agent?

    <p>Naloxone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They have a more selective action on the CNS.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following local anesthetics has the shortest duration of action?

    <p>Lidocaine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>They mimic the effects of GABA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a nonbarbiturate anesthetic?

    <p>Ketamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Pain relief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a cholinergic drug?

    <p>It increases sweat gland activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Propofol, a nonbarbiturate drug?

    <p>Interaction with CNS GABA receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a Benzodiazepine antagonist and reversal agent?

    <p>Flumazenil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Buspirone, a behavioral medication?

    <p>Serotonin receptor agonist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an anesthetic drug used for preanesthetic, analgesic, and neuroleptic analgesic purposes?

    <p>Morphine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of local anesthetics?

    <p>Blockage of sodium channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Alfaxan, a nonbarbiturate drug?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Guaifenesin, a nonbarbiturate drug?

    <p>Centrally acting muscle relaxant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an Opioid antagonist and reversal agent?

    <p>Naloxone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of associative neurons?

    <p>Carry impulses from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the space where neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and bind to receptors on another neuron?

    <p>Synapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nucleus in a neuron?

    <p>To maintain the structural integrity of the neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>To maintain internal homeostasis and respond to external stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurotransmitters?

    <p>To facilitate the movement of an impulse from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central nervous system?

    <p>To maintain internal homeostasis and respond to external stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dendrites?

    <p>To receive messages and carry them toward the cell body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of axons?

    <p>To carry electrical impulses away from the cell body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a neurotransmitter in a chemical synapse?

    <p>To transmit signals across a chemical synapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a drug that inhibits the effect of neurotransmitters?

    <p>It binds to the receptor site and prevents binding to receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between a sympathomimetic drug and a sympatholytic drug?

    <p>A sympathomimetic drug stimulates the release of neurotransmitters, while a sympatholytic drug inhibits it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of GABA in the nervous system?

    <p>It regulates body temperature, sleep, mood, appetite, and pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of a cholinergic drug?

    <p>It stimulates the release of the neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary action of dopamine in the nervous system?

    <p>It plays a central role in positive reinforcement and dependency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of a drug that mimics the effects of neurotransmitters?

    <p>It stimulates the release of the neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of acetylcholine in the nervous system?

    <p>It is involved in memory formation and learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Somatic Nervous System?

    <p>Voluntary functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron carries neural impulses from sensory stimuli towards the central nervous system and brain?

    <p>Sensory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Efferent nerves?

    <p>Carrying neural impulses away from the central nervous system towards muscles to cause movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nervous Systems?

    <p>One system is stimulated, the other is inhibited</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Neurotransmitters?

    <p>To enable neurotransmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system connects the spinal cord to vital organs, skeletal muscle, and skin?

    <p>Spinal nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?

    <p>To regulate heart rate and contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron carries neural impulses away from the central nervous system and towards muscles to cause movement?

    <p>Motor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of phenothiazines?

    <p>They block dopamine receptors in the CNS to produce sedation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Alpha2-Agonists compared to other sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>They can be reversed with antagonists.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?

    <p>They act as agonists at GABA receptors to produce sedation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary indication for the use of Opioids in veterinary medicine?

    <p>Analgesia and anesthesia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using Barbiturates in cats?

    <p>They are extremely sensitive to this class of drugs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of Dissociative Anesthetics?

    <p>They act as agonists at NMDA receptors to produce anesthesia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of Reversal Agents in veterinary medicine?

    <p>To reverse the effects of anesthesia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is responsible for the analgesic effect of Opioids?

    <p>Mu receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sedatives and tranquilizers?

    <p>Sedatives produce relaxation, while tranquilizers produce calmness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following drugs is a tranquilizer only and has no sedative properties?

    <p>Acepromazine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nervous System

    • The nervous system is divided into the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
      • CNS: brain and spinal cord
      • PNS: cranial and spinal nerves
    • The nervous system is responsible for both automatic and deliberate responses
    • It adapts to external stimuli and maintains internal homeostasis

    Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • ANS is responsible for involuntary or automatic functions
    • Divided into two parts:
      • Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): "fight or flight" response
      • Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): "rest and repose" response
    • ANS is responsible for:
      • Heart rate and contraction
      • GI motility and secretions
      • Pupillary response
      • Glandular secretion
      • Bladder control
      • Blood vessel contraction and relaxation

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemical agents that facilitate the movement of an impulse from one neuron to another
    • Examples:
      • Acetylcholine (Parasympathetic/Cholinergic)
      • Norepinephrine (Sympathetic/Adrenergic)
      • Epinephrine
      • Dopamine
      • Serotonin
      • GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

    Anesthetic Drugs

    • Can be classified as:
      • Injectables (e.g. Propofol, Alfaxan, Guaifenesin)
      • Inhalants (e.g. Sevoflurane, Isoflurane)
    • Anesthetic drugs can:
      • Induce chemical restraint
      • Provide general anesthesia
      • Be used as pre-anesthetics or for sedation

    Phenothiazines

    • Block dopamine receptors in the CNS (antagonist)
    • Used for sedation, pre-anesthetic, and as an antiemetic
    • Examples: Acepromazine
    • Adverse effects:
      • Hypotension
      • Lowering the seizure threshold in epileptic patients
      • Caution in geriatric patients, those with hepatic or cardiac disease
      • Prolapse of the 3rd eyelid, penile prolapse in stallions

    Benzodiazepines

    • Centrally acting muscle relaxant; enhance the activity of CNS inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA agonist)
    • Used for sedation, muscle relaxation, and as an anti-anxiety medication
    • Examples: Diazepam, Midazolam
    • Adverse effects:
      • Caution in geriatric patients, those with hepatic or renal disease
      • Contraindicated in patients with cardiac disease or respiratory depression

    Alpha2-Agonists

    • Sedative, provides some mild analgesia
    • Examples: Dexmedetomidine (Dexdomitor), Xylazine (Rompun)
    • Adverse effects:
      • Bradycardia
      • Peripheral vasoconstriction
      • Respiratory depression
      • Sensitivity to loud noises

    Barbiturates

    • Effects from interaction with the CNS inhibitor/GABA receptors
    • Used as sedatives, anticonvulsants, anesthetic induction, and component in euthanasia solutions
    • Examples: Phenobarbital, Pentobarbital
    • Adverse effects:
      • Dose-dependent cardiac and respiratory depression
      • Caution in geriatric patients, those with hepatic or renal disease

    Dissociative Anesthetics

    • Class: Cyclohexamine
    • Used for anesthetic induction, short-term anesthesia, sedation, and some analgesia
    • Examples: Ketamine, Telazol (Dissociative with Benzodiazepine combo)
    • Adverse effects:
      • Respiratory depression
      • Prolonged recovery
      • Hyperresponsiveness
      • Lose blink reflex

    Opioids

    • Derived from opium poppy alkaloids
    • Act on opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord
    • Examples: Morphine, Oxymorphone, Fentanyl, Hydromorphone, Buprenorphine
    • Adverse effects:
      • Respiratory and cardiac depression
      • Caution in geriatric patients, those with hepatic or renal disease
      • Dependence and addiction

    Reversal Agents

    • Used to reverse the effects of anesthetic drugs
    • Examples:
      • Flumazenil (Benzodiazepine antagonist)
      • Yohimbine (Alpha2-antagonist)
      • Atipamezole/Antisedan (Dexmedetomidine/Dexdomitor antagonist)
      • Naloxone (Opioid antagonist)

    Behavioral Medications

    • Used to treat behavioral disorders in veterinary medicine
    • Examples:
      • Buspirone, Trazadone (Serotonin receptor agonists)
      • Fluoxetine, Paraxetine (SSRI behavior modifiers)
      • Amitriptyline, Clomipramine, Imipramine, Doxepin (Tricyclic behavior modifiers)
    • Adverse effects:
      • Dependence and addiction
      • Caution in geriatric patients, those with hepatic or renal disease

    Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • Divided into two parts: Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)
    • Responsible for involuntary functions such as heart rate, gastrointestinal motility, pupillary response, glandular secretion, bladder control, and blood vessels

    Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

    • Also known as Cholinergic
    • Responsible for rest and energy-conserving activities
    • Promotes Rest and Repose
    • Affected by Cholinergic or anti-adrenergic drugs
    • Examples of PNS receptors: Muscarinic, Nicotinic

    Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

    • Also known as Adrenergic
    • Responsible for "Fight or Flight" response
    • Affected by adrenergic drugs
    • Examples of SNS receptors: Alpha-1, Alpha-2, Beta-1, Beta-2
    • Examples of SNS responses: Heart rate increase, vasodilation, increased respiration, and increased glucose release

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemical substances that facilitate the movement of an impulse from one neuron to another
    • Examples of neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, and GABA
    • Each neurotransmitter has a specific function and receptor

    Anesthetic Drugs

    • Classified into two categories: Injectable and Inhalant
    • Examples of injectable anesthetic drugs: Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, Alpha-2 agonists, and Opioids
    • Examples of inhalant anesthetic drugs: Halothane, Isoflurane, and Sevoflurane

    Sympathomimetic (SPM) and Sympatholytic (SPL) Drugs

    • SPM drugs increase blood pressure and cardiac output, used in congestive heart failure and increase renal perfusion
    • SPL drugs decrease blood pressure and cardiac output, used in hypertension and cardiac disorders

    Parasympathomimetic (PSM) and Parasympatholytic (PSL) Drugs

    • PSM drugs mimic parasympathetic actions, used in bladder contractility, canine glaucoma, and treatment of gastroparesis
    • PSL drugs inhibit parasympathetic actions, used to increase heart rate, decrease GI and respiratory secretions, and as an antidote for organophosphate poisoning

    Anesthetic Induction

    • Process of inducing anesthesia using a combination of drugs
    • Examples of anesthetic induction agents: Propofol, Etomidate, and Thiopental

    Anesthetic Maintenance

    • Process of maintaining anesthesia using a combination of drugs
    • Examples of anesthetic maintenance agents: Inhalant anesthetics, Opioids, and Benzodiazepines

    Reversal Agents

    • Used to reverse the effects of anesthetic drugs
    • Examples of reversal agents: Flumazenil, Naloxone, and Atipamezole

    Behavioral Medications

    • Used to treat behavioral disorders in veterinary medicine
    • Examples of behavioral medications: Buspirone, Trazadone, and Fluoxetine

    Neurotransmitter Receptors

    • Chemical structures that bind to neurotransmitters
    • Examples of neurotransmitter receptors: Mu, Kappa, Sigma, and Delta

    Opioids

    • Derived from opium poppy alkaloids
    • Act on opioid receptors found throughout the body
    • Examples of opioids: Morphine, Oxymorphone, Fentanyl, and Hydromorphone

    Anesthetic Complications

    • Respiratory depression, cardiac depression, and allergic reactions
    • Can be minimized by proper monitoring and dosing of anesthetic drugs

    Sedation and Tranquilization

    • Sedation: reduces awareness of surroundings, but patient is still responsive to stimuli
    • Tranquilization: reduces anxiety, but patient is still aware of surroundings
    • Sedatives: used to suppress brain activity and prevent movement, not for learning or performing tasks
    • Tranquilizers: used to reduce anxiety, often helps horses perform tasks while reducing anxiety

    Anesthetic Drugs: Injectables

    • Uses: induce chemical restraint, general anesthesia, preanesthetic, and induction
    • Advantages: convenient, economical, and multimodal protocol
    • Disadvantages: short duration of action, cannot be controlled, and not immediately eliminated

    Phenothiazines

    • Block dopamine receptors in the CNS (antagonist)
    • Uses: sedation, pre-anesthetic, antiemetic, antiarrhythmic, and antihistamine
    • Adverse effects: hypotension, lower seizure threshold, caution with geriatric patients, and others

    Benzodiazepines

    • Centrally acting muscle relaxant, enhances CNS inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA agonist)
    • Uses: minor tranquilizers, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant, sedation, and anti-anxiety
    • Contraindications: geriatric, pregnant animals, hepatic and renal disease

    Alpha2-Agonists

    • Sedative, provides mild analgesia, and reversible
    • Uses: sedation, pre-anesthetic, analgesia, and emetic (feline)
    • Contraindications: cardiac, hepatic, or renal diseases, seizure disorders, and debilitated patients

    Barbiturates

    • Effects: interaction with CNS inhibitor/GABA receptors
    • Uses: sedatives, anticonvulsants, anesthetic induction, and component in euthanasia solutions
    • Contraindications: sight hounds, and caution with cats

    Dissociative Anesthetics

    • Class: Cyclohexamine
    • Uses: anesthetic induction, short-term anesthesia, sedation, and some analgesia
    • Contraindications: head traumas, seizure disorders, hypertension, and glaucoma

    Opioids

    • Derived from opium poppy alkaloids
    • Receptors: mu, kappa, sigma, and delta
    • Uses: pre-anesthetic, analgesic, neuroleptic analgesic, and antitussive
    • Precautions: strictly controlled, adverse effects, and caution with certain diseases

    Nonbarbiturate Drugs or Nonclassified Anesthetics

    • Propofol: ultrashort-acting, noncumulative, rapid recovery
    • Alfaxan: nonbarbiturate anesthetic
    • Guaifenesin: centrally acting muscle relaxant, decongestant, and antitussive

    Reversal Agents

    • Benzodiazepine antagonist: flumazenil
    • Alpha2-antagonist: yohimbine, atipamezole
    • Opioid antagonist: naloxone

    Behavioral Medications

    • Used to treat behavioral disorders in veterinary medicine
    • Examples: serotonin receptor agonist, SSRI behavior modifiers, and tricyclic behavior modifiers
    • Importance of client education

    Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • Parasympathetic nervous system: promotes rest and energy-conserving activities
    • Sympathetic nervous system: "fight or flight" response
    • Reciprocal inhibition between the two systems

    Neurotransmitters

    • Endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission
    • Examples: acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and GABA

    Sedation and Tranquilization

    • Sedation: reduces awareness of surroundings, but patient is still responsive to stimuli
    • Tranquilization: reduces anxiety, but patient is still aware of surroundings
    • Sedatives: used to suppress brain activity and prevent movement, not for learning or performing tasks
    • Tranquilizers: used to reduce anxiety, often helps horses perform tasks while reducing anxiety

    Anesthetic Drugs: Injectables

    • Uses: induce chemical restraint, general anesthesia, preanesthetic, and induction
    • Advantages: convenient, economical, and multimodal protocol
    • Disadvantages: short duration of action, cannot be controlled, and not immediately eliminated

    Phenothiazines

    • Block dopamine receptors in the CNS (antagonist)
    • Uses: sedation, pre-anesthetic, antiemetic, antiarrhythmic, and antihistamine
    • Adverse effects: hypotension, lower seizure threshold, caution with geriatric patients, and others

    Benzodiazepines

    • Centrally acting muscle relaxant, enhances CNS inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA agonist)
    • Uses: minor tranquilizers, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant, sedation, and anti-anxiety
    • Contraindications: geriatric, pregnant animals, hepatic and renal disease

    Alpha2-Agonists

    • Sedative, provides mild analgesia, and reversible
    • Uses: sedation, pre-anesthetic, analgesia, and emetic (feline)
    • Contraindications: cardiac, hepatic, or renal diseases, seizure disorders, and debilitated patients

    Barbiturates

    • Effects: interaction with CNS inhibitor/GABA receptors
    • Uses: sedatives, anticonvulsants, anesthetic induction, and component in euthanasia solutions
    • Contraindications: sight hounds, and caution with cats

    Dissociative Anesthetics

    • Class: Cyclohexamine
    • Uses: anesthetic induction, short-term anesthesia, sedation, and some analgesia
    • Contraindications: head traumas, seizure disorders, hypertension, and glaucoma

    Opioids

    • Derived from opium poppy alkaloids
    • Receptors: mu, kappa, sigma, and delta
    • Uses: pre-anesthetic, analgesic, neuroleptic analgesic, and antitussive
    • Precautions: strictly controlled, adverse effects, and caution with certain diseases

    Nonbarbiturate Drugs or Nonclassified Anesthetics

    • Propofol: ultrashort-acting, noncumulative, rapid recovery
    • Alfaxan: nonbarbiturate anesthetic
    • Guaifenesin: centrally acting muscle relaxant, decongestant, and antitussive

    Reversal Agents

    • Benzodiazepine antagonist: flumazenil
    • Alpha2-antagonist: yohimbine, atipamezole
    • Opioid antagonist: naloxone

    Behavioral Medications

    • Used to treat behavioral disorders in veterinary medicine
    • Examples: serotonin receptor agonist, SSRI behavior modifiers, and tricyclic behavior modifiers
    • Importance of client education

    Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • Parasympathetic nervous system: promotes rest and energy-conserving activities
    • Sympathetic nervous system: "fight or flight" response
    • Reciprocal inhibition between the two systems

    Neurotransmitters

    • Endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission
    • Examples: acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and GABA

    Autonomic Nervous System

    • Fight or Flight response: affected by adrenergic drugs, also known as anticholinergic
    • Responses correspond to sympathetic nervous system: heart rate, force of contraction, vasodilation of bronchioles, motility, secretions, blood flow, diameter of muscle blood vessels, diameter of skin blood vessels

    Parasympathetic Nervous System

    • Rest and Repose response: affected by Cholinergic drugs or anti-adrenergic drugs
    • Responses correspond to parasympathetic nervous system: heart rate, bronchioles diameter, pupil size, motility, secretions, blood flow

    Mechanism of Action

    • Drugs can either inhibit or block the effect of neurotransmitters, or mimic their effects
    • Inhibit: bind to receptor site, preventing neurotransmitter binding
    • Mimic: directly bind to receptor site, stimulate release of neurotransmitter, or inhibit breakdown of neurotransmitter

    Receptors

    • Sympathetic Receptors:
      • Alpha receptors: excitability or increased activity in target organ (not GI tract), divided into Alpha-1 and Alpha-2
      • Beta receptors: decrease activity or relax target organ (not heart muscle), divided into Beta-1 and Beta-2
    • Parasympathetic Receptors: Nicotinic and Muscarinic

    Anesthetic Drugs

    • Categories: Local, Dissociative agents, Phenothiazines, Benzodiazepines, Alpha-2 agonists, Barbiturates, Opioids, Reversal agents
    • Local Anesthetics: block pain receptors at site of action, prevent nerve impulses from being transmitted back to CNS
    • Tranquilizer vs Sedative: tranquilizers reduce anxiety, sedatives offer increased analgesia or pain relief

    Neurotransmitters

    • Acetylcholine: parasympathetic/cholinergic, involved in muscle contractions, memory formation, and hormone secretion
    • Norepinephrine: sympathetic/adrenergic, involved in stress, attention, and learning
    • Epinephrine: sympathetic/adrenergic, involved in metabolism, attention, and cognition
    • Dopamine: involved in movement, mood, and reward
    • Serotonin: involved in regulation of body temperature, sleep, mood, appetite, and pain
    • GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): involved in motor control, vision, and cortical functions

    Anesthetic Drugs: Injectables

    • Uses and advantages: induce chemical restraint, general anesthesia, more convenient and economical than inhalant anesthetic drugs
    • Disadvantages: short duration of action, cannot be controlled, not immediately eliminated

    Phenothiazines

    • Block dopamine receptors in CNS (antagonist), sedation, pre-anesthetic, antiemetic, antiarrhythmic, antihistamine
    • Adverse effects: hypotension, lower seizure threshold in epileptic patients, caution with geriatric patients, hepatic or cardiac disease precautions

    Benzodiazepines

    • Centrally acting muscle relaxant, enhance activity of CNS inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA agonist)
    • Minor tranquilizers, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant, sedation, anti-anxiety, appetite stimulants
    • Caution with geriatric, pregnant animals, hepatic and renal disease

    Alpha2-Agonists

    • Sedative, reversal, provides mild analgesia
    • Indications: sedation, pre-anesthetic, analgesia, emetic (feline)
    • Contraindications: cardiac, hepatic, or renal diseases; seizure disorders; debilitated patients
    • Adverse effects: bradycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction, respiratory depression, sensitivity to loud noises

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