Nervous System Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is the main function of sensory neurons?

  • To detect stimuli (correct)
  • To produce a response
  • To relay signals to the brain
  • To transmit information

    • The myelin sheath protects the nerve cell's dendrites.

    False

    Name the two main divisions of the nervous system.

    Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

    The function of __________ neurons is to pass messages from the brain to the rest of the body for muscle response.

    <p>motor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following parts of a neuron with their functions:

    <p>Dendrites = Receive chemical signals from neighboring cells Cell Body = Contains the nucleus &amp; organelles Axon = Carries electrical messages away from the body Terminal Axons = Passes the signal to the next cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system serves as the main control center?

    <p>Brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is only composed of sensory neurons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the color of oxygen-rich blood?

    <p>Scarlet red</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Involuntary movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pH of blood must remain between 7.25 and 7.35.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of erythrocytes?

    <p>To carry oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ connects and relays nerve impulses to the brain.

    <p>spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each part of the nervous system with its corresponding function:

    <p>Cerebrum = Voluntary activity, memory, language Cerebellum = Coordinates movement, maintains balance Brain Stem = Controls heart rate and breathing Pons = Facilitates communication between different brain parts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood is composed of _____ liters, which is about 6 quarts per body.

    <p>5-6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following blood components with their functions:

    <p>Albumin = Regulates osmotic pressure Clotting proteins = Helps stem blood loss Globulins = Protects against antigens Fibrinogen = Involved in blood clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which subsystem of the PNS is responsible for voluntary movements?

    <p>Somatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is indicated by leukocyte levels above 11,000 cells/ml?

    <p>Leukocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla oblongata is part of the Pons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are intersegmental tracts responsible for in the spinal cord?

    <p>Communication between parts of the spinal cord.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leukopenia refers to abnormally high leukocyte levels?

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main types of leukocytes?

    <p>Granulocytes and Agranulocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of blood cell formation occurs in the ______.

    <p>red bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of leukocytes with their primary characteristics:

    <p>Neutrophils = Act as phagocytes at infection sites Eosinophils = Respond to allergies and parasitic worms Basophils = Initiate inflammation Monocytes = Function as macrophages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a complete spinal cord injury?

    <p>Paraplegia or tetraplegia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Arteries have valves to prevent backflow of blood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main types of blood vessels?

    <p>Arteries, veins, capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The kidneys respond to the hormone called ______ to help regulate blood pressure.

    <p>aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following blood vessel properties to the correct type:

    <p>Arteries = Carry blood away from the heart Veins = Carry blood back to the heart Capillaries = Link up arteries and veins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about capillaries is true?

    <p>Capillaries are one cell thick.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood is composed primarily of plasma and formed elements.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    List two functions of blood.

    <p>Transport of dissolved substances, Defense against toxins and pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?

    <p>Provide support and protection for neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Interneurons transmit signals directly from the sensory neurons to the muscles.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the myelin sheath?

    <p>Protect the axon and speed up impulse transmission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The part of the neuron that carries electrical messages away from the cell body is called the __________.

    <p>axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of neurons with their functions:

    <p>Sensory Neuron = Detects stimuli Interneuron = Relays signals to the brain Motor Neuron = Passes messages to muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of hemoglobin in erythrocytes?

    <p>To carry oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood pH is normally acidic, ranging from 6.8 to 7.2.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much blood does a typical human body contain, in liters?

    <p>5-6 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________ are crucial in the body's defense against disease and contain a nucleus.

    <p>Leukocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following plasma proteins with their functions:

    <p>Albumin = Regulates osmotic pressure Globulins = Protects the body from antigens Fibrinogen = Helps in blood clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is associated with the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Regulates digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla oblongata is responsible for regulating heart rate and breathing.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two major subsystems of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

    <p>Somatic and Autonomic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is the main control center of the nervous system.

    <p>brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the brain regions with their primary functions:

    <p>Cerebellum = Coordinates movement and balance Cerebrum = Voluntary activity and memory Brain Stem = Regulates unconscious functions like breathing Pons = Connects different parts of the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neurons detect stimuli?

    <p>Sensory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The spinal cord is referred to as the 'information superhighway' of the nervous system.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Capillaries are known for having thick muscular walls.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of blood vessel carries blood back to the heart?

    <p>Veins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The kidneys help regulate blood pressure in response to the hormone _______.

    <p>aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of blood vessels with their main characteristics:

    <p>Arteries = Carry blood away from the heart Veins = Carry blood back to the heart and have valves Capillaries = Link arteries and veins and are one cell thick</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood component is primarily responsible for defense against pathogens?

    <p>Leukocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Arteries contain valves to prevent backflow of blood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of blood?

    <p>Transport of oxygen and nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal range of leukocyte levels in the blood?

    <p>4,000 to 11,000 cells/ml</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eosinophils are primarily involved in fighting bacterial infections.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of leukocyte acts as a phagocyte at sites of infection?

    <p>Neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leukopenia refers to __________ levels of leukocytes in the blood.

    <p>abnormally low</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of leukocytes with their main characteristics:

    <p>Neutrophils = Multilobed nucleus that acts as a phagocyte Eosinophils = Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules Basophils = Contain histamine and initiate inflammation Lymphocytes = Nucleus fills most of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of motor neurons?

    <p>To relay messages from the brain to the body for muscle response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glial cells are responsible for sending electrochemical messages around the body.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of a neuron receives chemical signals from neighboring cells?

    <p>Dendrites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ connects the sensory neurons to the brain and relays the information back to motor neurons.

    <p>Interneurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of neuron with its primary function:

    <p>Sensory neuron = Detects stimuli from the environment Interneuron = Relays signals between sensory and motor neurons Motor neuron = Transmits messages from the brain to muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of arteries?

    <p>Carry blood away from the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a spinal cord injury that results in permanent damage?

    <p>complete spinal cord injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The kidney helps regulate blood pressure by responding to the hormone __________.

    <p>aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following blood vessel types with their functions:

    <p>Arteries = Carry blood away from the heart Veins = Carry blood back to the heart Capillaries = Exchange of substances between blood and tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of blood vessel has a large lumen and thin muscular walls?

    <p>Veins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood is primarily composed of plasma and formed elements.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of capillaries in the circulatory system?

    <p>Exchange of substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is indicated by leukocyte levels below 4,000 cells/ml?

    <p>Leukopenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Granulocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does hematopoiesis occur?

    <p>Red bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrophils act as ______ at active sites of infection.

    <p>phagocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for voluntary activity?

    <p>Cerebrum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The autonomic nervous system is responsible for voluntary movements.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of albumin in blood plasma?

    <p>Regulates osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the spinal cord?

    <p>Connects and relays nerve impulses to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Oxygen-poor blood appears scarlet red.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ consists of sensory and motor neurons.

    <p>Peripheral Nervous System</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of blood is composed of water in plasma?

    <p>90%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function of the brainstem?

    <p>Regulating heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each hemoglobin molecule has __________ oxygen binding sites.

    <p>four</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following parts of the nervous system with their primary functions:

    <p>Cerebellum = Coordinates movement and maintains posture Cerebrum = Handles voluntary activities and processes sensory signals Pons = Controls breathing and heart rate Medulla Oblongata = Involuntary functions such as swallowing and coughing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sensory neurons are responsible for carrying signals to stimulate a response.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The area that connects different parts of the spinal cord together is called __________.

    <p>intersegmental tracts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Motor neurons are responsible for detecting stimuli from the environment.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main types of neurons?

    <p>Sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The long extension of a neuron that carries electrical messages away from the cell body is called the __________.

    <p>axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Oxygen-rich blood is bright red.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal pH range of blood?

    <p>7.35 to 7.45</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The color of oxygen-poor blood is __________.

    <p>dull red</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following types of leukocytes are classified as granulocytes?

    <p>Neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leukopenia is characterized by leukocyte levels above 11,000 cells/ml.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of hematopoiesis in the human body?

    <p>red bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eosinophils are primarily found in response to __________.

    <p>allergies and parasitic worms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following leukocyte types with their primary functions:

    <p>Neutrophils = Phagocytosis at infection sites Eosinophils = Response to allergies and parasites Basophils = Initiate inflammation Lymphocytes = Immune response regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of arteries?

    <p>Carry blood away from the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Veins have thick muscular walls and transport blood under high pressure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition results from a complete spinal cord injury?

    <p>Paraplegia or tetraplegia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Healthy kidneys respond to a hormone called ______ to help regulate blood pressure.

    <p>aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following blood vessels with their characteristics:

    <p>Arteries = Thick muscular walls and carry blood under high pressure Veins = Transport blood slowly back to the heart Capillaries = One cell thick walls for nutrient exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of blood?

    <p>Store energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Capillaries have valves to prevent backflow of blood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to blood pressure when kidneys are damaged?

    <p>Blood pressure becomes uncontrolled and contributes to further health issues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Regulate involuntary functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The brain is the only part of the Central Nervous System (CNS).

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the two major subsystems of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

    <p>Somatic and Autonomic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______ part of the brain coordinates movement, muscle control, and balance.

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following parts of the nervous system with their functions:

    <p>Cerebrum = Voluntary activity and sensory processing Pons = Breathing and swallowing control Medulla Oblongata = Regulation of heart rate Spinal Cord = Relay nerve impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron carries signals to stimulate a response in muscles?

    <p>Motor Neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The somatic nervous system is responsible for involuntary movements.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What connects the Central Nervous System (CNS) to all organ systems?

    <p>Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the neuron is responsible for carrying electrical messages away from the cell body?

    <p>Axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glial cells are responsible for transmitting signals between neurons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of neuron is responsible for relaying sensory signals to the brain?

    <p>Interneurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is the functional unit of the nervous system.

    <p>neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of neurons with their primary roles:

    <p>Sensory neuron = Detect stimuli Interneurons = Relay signals to brain Motor neuron = Pass messages to muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Oxygen-poor blood appears bright red.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of leukocytes?

    <p>To defend the body against disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The liquid component of blood that is composed of approximately 90 percent water is called __________.

    <p>plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of blood with their primary functions:

    <p>Erythrocytes = Carry oxygen Leukocytes = Defend against disease Thrombocytes = Clotting Plasma = Transport nutrients i = n</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of spinal cord injury results in permanent damage to the affected area?

    <p>Complete spinal cord injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Veins have thick muscular walls and carry blood under high pressure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone helps the kidneys regulate blood pressure?

    <p>aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The main components of blood include plasma and ________.

    <p>formed elements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each type of blood vessel with its primary characteristic:

    <p>Arteries = Blood flows under high pressure Veins = Carry blood back to the heart Capillaries = Link arteries and veins in tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement describes capillaries accurately?

    <p>They connect arteries and veins and have walls one cell thick.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Incapillary circulation, blood pressure increases as it passes through.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The central nervous system includes only the brain.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ coordinates all movement and helps maintain balance.

    <p>cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the parts of the brain with their functions:

    <p>Cerebrum = Voluntary activity, memory, language Cerebellum = Coordinates movement and balance Medulla Oblongata = Controls breathing and heart rate Pons = Regulates swallowing and sneezing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system of the Peripheral Nervous System is responsible for the fight or flight response?

    <p>Sympathetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The autonomic nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of sensory neurons in the nervous system?

    <p>To detect stimuli and send signals to the central nervous system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Granulocytes can be stained due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of neutrophils in the immune response?

    <p>Phagocytosis at infection sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leukocytosis generally indicates an infection when leukocyte levels are above _____ cells/ml.

    <p>11,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the leukocyte types with their primary functions:

    <p>Neutrophils = Phagocytosis at sites of infection Eosinophils = Response to allergies and parasitic infections Basophils = Initiate inflammation Lymphocytes = Role in immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of interneurons in the nervous system?

    <p>Interneurons relay sensory signals to the brain and return messages to motor neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the function of dendrites in a neuron.

    <p>Dendrites receive chemical signals from neighboring cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the myelin sheath contribute to neuron function?

    <p>The myelin sheath provides insulation to the axon, allowing for faster transmission of electrical impulses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens in the body during a reflex action when stepping on a nail?

    <p>The sensory neurons in the foot detect the stimulus, sending signals to the spinal cord, where interneurons trigger a motor response to lift the foot.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    List the four primary functions of the nervous system.

    <p>Sensing the world, transmitting information, processing information, and producing a response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the primary functions of the proteins found in blood plasma?

    <p>The proteins regulate osmotic pressure, aid in clotting, and provide immune defense through antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the structure of erythrocytes enhance their ability to carry oxygen?

    <p>Erythrocytes are biconcave disks that maximize surface area for oxygen absorption and contain hemoglobin for oxygen binding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common condition is indicated by leukocyte levels below 4,000 cells/ml?

    <p>Leukopenia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of leukocyte primarily responds to allergies and parasitic infections?

    <p>Eosinophils.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the pH range 7.35–7.45 in blood?

    <p>This slightly alkaline pH range is crucial for optimal enzyme activity and overall metabolic processes within the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most important function of neutrophils in the blood?

    <p>Neutrophils act as phagocytes at active sites of infection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the role of leukocytes in the immune system.

    <p>Leukocytes are essential for defending the body against diseases and can move out of blood vessels to respond to damaged tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes oxygen-rich blood from oxygen-poor blood in terms of color?

    <p>Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red, while oxygen-poor blood appears dull red.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does hematopoiesis, or blood cell formation, primarily occur in the body?

    <p>In the red bone marrow.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of leukocyte is characterized by a nucleus that fills most of the cell?

    <p>Lymphocytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between complete and incomplete spinal cord injuries?

    <p>A complete spinal cord injury results in permanent damage with loss of function below the injury, whereas an incomplete injury leads to partial loss of function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the role of arteries in the circulatory system.

    <p>Arteries carry blood away from the heart, have thick muscular walls, and transport blood under high pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function do valves in veins serve?

    <p>Valves in veins prevent the backflow of blood, ensuring it flows in one direction back to the heart.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure of capillary walls, and why is it significant?

    <p>Capillary walls are made up of a single layer of endothelial cells, allowing for efficient exchange of substances between blood and tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do healthy kidneys contribute to blood pressure regulation?

    <p>Healthy kidneys respond to aldosterone to balance fluid levels and regulate blood pressure effectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the consequences of blockage in blood vessels on kidney function?

    <p>Blockage in blood vessels can lead to reduced kidney perfusion, eventually resulting in kidney damage or failure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain why blood flows slowly in veins compared to arteries.

    <p>Blood flows slowly in veins due to their larger lumen and lower pressure, allowing for efficient return to the heart.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do the brain and spinal cord play in the Central Nervous System?

    <p>The brain is the main control center while the spinal cord connects and relays nerve impulses to and from the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do sensory neurons and motor neurons differ in function?

    <p>Sensory neurons detect stimuli and send signals to the CNS, while motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to stimulate responses in muscles or glands.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Differentiate between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

    <p>The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, while the autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary actions such as digestion and heart rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the key functions of the cerebellum?

    <p>The cerebellum coordinates movement, maintains posture, and ensures balance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the significance of the medulla oblongata.

    <p>The medulla oblongata controls essential autonomic functions like heart rate, breathing, and reflex actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of intersegmental tracts in the spinal cord?

    <p>Intersegmental tracts facilitate communication between different parts of the spinal cord.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses during stressful situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the pons in the brainstem?

    <p>The pons regulates autonomic functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nervous System Overview

    • The nervous system is a network of nerve tissue throughout the body.
    • It comprises the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord.
    • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) encompasses nerves extending from the spinal cord to other nerve tissue.

    Four Primary Functions

    • Sensing: Vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
    • Transmitting: Sending information.
    • Processing: Interpreting information.
    • Responding: Producing a reaction.

    Neuron Structure and Function

    • The functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron.
    • Neurons transmit electrochemical messages throughout the body.
    • Glial cells support and protect neurons.

    Parts of a Neuron

    • Dendrites: Receive chemical signals from neighboring cells.
    • Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and organelles.
    • Axon: A long extension carrying electrical signals away from the cell body.
    • Node of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath.
    • Schwann Cell: Forms the myelin sheath.
    • Myelin Sheath: Protective covering for the axon.
    • Axon Terminal: Passes signals to the next cell.

    Types of Neurons

    • Sensory Neurons: Detect stimuli.
    • Interneurons: Relay sensory signals to the brain and motor neurons, returning messages.
    • Motor Neurons: Carry messages from the brain to the rest of the body to trigger muscle responses.

    Reflex Action

    • Reflexes are automatic responses.
    • A stimulus (e.g., stepping on a nail) triggers a sensory neuron.
    • Sensory information travels to the spinal cord, where an interneuron is activated.
    • The interneuron sends a signal to the brain.
    • The brain sends a signal back to stimulate a motor neuron.
    • The motor neuron causes a response, such as moving the foot.

    Nervous System Divisions

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord. Receives, interprets, and sends signals to the PNS.
    • Brain: Main control center.
    • Spinal Cord: Connects and relays nerve impulses to the brain.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All other nerves in the body. Connects the CNS to all organ systems.
    • Somatic System: Voluntary movements.
    • Autonomic System: Involuntary movements (digestion, fight or flight).

    Brain Structure and Function

    • Cerebellum: A smaller portion of the brain at the back. Coordinates movement, posture, muscle control, and balance.
    • Cerebrum: The large front part of the brain. Contains voluntary activity, memory, language; receives and responds to sensory signals/controls motor functions.
    • Brain Stem and Pons: Responsible for essential life functions (breathing, heart rate, swallowing, etc)
    • Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Clear, colorless liquid protecting the CNS; provides nutrients, and removes waste.
    • Spinal Cord: Pathway for signals between the brain and the body. Protected by vertebral column.

    Heart

    • The heart is a hollow muscular organ located in the thorax between the lungs.
    • It has four chambers (2 atriums and 2 ventricles).
    • The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.
    • The left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.
    • Surrounded by a membrane called the pericardium.

    Blood Vessels

    • Three main types: arteries, veins, and capillaries.
    • Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart, have thick, muscular walls with elastic tissue, and relatively small lumens. Pressure is great, and blood flows in pulses; no valves.
    • Veins: Carry blood back to the heart, have thin walls, relatively large lumens, low pressure, and slow flow. Valves prevent backflow.
    • Capillaries: Link arteries and veins in tissues, thin walls (one cell thick), low pressure, smooth flow, and small lumens; no valves, no pulse.

    Blood

    • Plasma: (90% water). Transports oxygen, nutrients, salts, hormones, respiratory gases, and waste products.
    • Formed elements: Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
    • Erythrocytes/Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen, biconcave shape, no nucleus.
    • Hemoglobin: Iron-containing protein binding oxygen in RBCs.
    • Leukocytes/White Blood Cells: Crucial for disease defense, complete cells with a nucleus and organelles. Types include granulocytes (e.g., neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (e.g., lymphocytes, monocytes).
    • Thrombocytes/Platelets: Involved in blood clotting.
    • Hematopoiesis: Blood cell formation in red bone marrow.

    Circulation

    • Pulmonary Circulation: Blood circulates from the heart to the lungs, picks up oxygen, and returns to the heart.
    • Coronary Circulation: Blood flow to nourish the heart muscle itself.
    • Systemic Circulation: Blood circulates from the heart to body tissues, delivers oxygen and nutrients, returns to the heart.

    Heart Rate

    • An electrocardiogram (ECG) measures the heart's electrical activity.
    • A normal resting heart rate is around 70 beats per minute.
    • Heart rate fluctuates throughout the day, influenced by factors like exercise, sleep, emotions, and drugs.

    Kidney Role

    • Healthy kidneys regulate blood pressure with a hormone called aldosterone, produced by the adrenal glands.

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