Neoplasms and Tumor Classification

Clonal cells and reactive stroma.

Benign tumors are localized and do not metastasize, whereas malignant tumors can invade locally and spread to distant sites.

Reactive stroma influences tumor growth and the response to therapies.

<p>SCC has a higher propensity for metastasis compared to BCC, which is typically localized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Morphology helps classify tumors based on their appearance under a microscope.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Colonic adenomas can progress to colorectal carcinoma if they acquire invasive characteristics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hematopoietic tumors include conditions like Hodgkin lymphoma.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Immunohistochemistry is used to classify tumors based on specific markers, distinguishing between types such as epithelial or hematopoietic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The components are tubule formation, nuclear grade, and mitotic rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Gleason score is the sum of the two most prevalent grades of tissue architecture, ranging from 2 to 10.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A lower grade suggests a better prognosis and potentially less aggressive treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The mechanisms are local invasion, lymphatic spread, hematogenous spread, and spread within body cavities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Early detection can lead to improved prognosis and more effective treatment outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It can lead to malignant ascites, which is difficult to treat due to its diffuse nature.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It classifies cancer based on the TNM classification: Tumor size and extent, lymph Node involvement, and presence of Metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Iatrogenic spread refers to the spread of tumors as a result of medical procedures, such as needle biopsies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor grading and staging influence decisions about surgery, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A Gleason score of 7 indicates that the tumor tissue is moderately differentiated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Angiogenesis allows tumors to establish a blood supply necessary for their growth and survival after metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor tattooing is crucial to mark the biopsy site, ensuring complete excision of both the tumor and any potential spread along the needle path.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bone metastases can lead to pain, disability, and unexpected fractures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Revisions emphasize the need for actual invasion into adjacent structures rather than just capsule penetration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Chronic inflammation, such as that caused by infections like Helicobacter pylori, can lead to the transformation of normal cells into cancerous ones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Driver mutations are critical genetic alterations that confer a selective advantage to tumor cells, allowing for uncontrolled growth and proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Passenger mutations do not contribute to cancer progression and are seen as byproducts, while driver mutations actively promote tumorigenesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Pancreatic cancer typically presents with late-stage diagnosis and is highly aggressive, leading to poor survival outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenes promote cancer development by driving uncontrolled cell proliferation when mutated or overexpressed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor heterogeneity refers to the presence of genetically distinct subpopulations of cancer cells within a single tumor, each with unique mutations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Senescent cells are non-dividing cells that can contribute to cancer recurrence due to their resistance to conventional therapies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The microenvironment can provide signals that promote tumor growth, such as through hypoxia-induced anaerobic respiration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations occur most frequently during DNA replication and are only passed on during cell division, leading to clonal expansion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor adaptations through pathway co-option can render therapies ineffective as tumors exploit existing cellular pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Understanding the aetiology of carcinogenesis is critical for identifying the mutations that initiate cancer and how they contribute to tumor progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Screening programs focus on early detection of prevalent cancers, which can lead to more effective treatment and improved survival rates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The immune system can exert selective pressure on tumors, influencing their evolution and the emergence of resistant clones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell growth, and mutations in these genes can lead to loss of growth control and cancer development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>SCC has a greater potential for lymphatic and distant spread, making it more aggressive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Management typically involves surgical excision, and systemic treatment is rarely required.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>High tumor mutational burden can guide the use of immunomodulatory therapies due to better responsiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumors are classified as benign, malignant, or intermediate/borderline based on their potential for invasion and spread.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>An example is an adenoma, which is clonal and has no capacity to invade other tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Anaplasia is characterized by pleomorphism, atypical mitotic figures, lack of polarity, and abnormal nuclear morphology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Metaplasia is the replacement of one differentiated cell type with another, such as the replacement of squamous epithelium with columnar epithelium in Barrett's Esophagus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dysplasia is characterized by abnormal cell growth within the epithelium and is a pre-cancerous condition, while metaplasia is a change in cell type due to chronic irritation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The WHO Blue Books provide a standardized classification system for tumors, incorporating new findings to maintain global consistency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Malignant neoplasms, like adenocarcinoma, exhibit properties of invasiveness and can metastasize to distant sites.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Anaplastic tumor cells often show irregular nuclear shapes, high nuclear-cytoplasmic ratios, and abnormal mitotic figures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>FAP is characterized by numerous benign polyps in the colon that have a high risk of progressing to colorectal carcinoma.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Metaplasia can be reversible if the underlying cause, such as chronic irritation, is effectively removed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor-agnostic biomarkers, like high mutational burden, help guide treatment across various tumor types, making them crucial for personalized therapy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Imaging techniques, morphological assessments, and immunohistochemical profiles are used to diagnose neoplasia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The immune system helps prevent the progression of UV-induced damage into visible cancer by recognizing and dealing with abnormal cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>HPV types 16 and 18 are linked to approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gene expression controls which genes are active in a cell, leading to different functions and identities among cell types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Enhancers are DNA sequences that bind transcription factors, helping recruit proteins to initiate transcription by bending DNA to bring them closer to the promoter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transcription factors bind to specific DNA sequences to promote or inhibit transcription, often requiring additional signals like hormones for activation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Spatial regulation refers to gene expression occurring in specific tissues, while temporal regulation refers to expression at particular developmental stages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Post-transcriptional regulation involves RNA processing, including capping, poly-adenylation, and splicing, impacting mRNA stability and translation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Alternative splicing allows one gene to produce multiple protein variants by including different combinations of exons in the mRNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The lifespan of mRNA in the cytoplasm influences how much protein can be produced, with some proteins stabilizing mRNA to prolong its expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Non-coding RNAs, like rRNA and miRNA, play critical roles in regulating gene expression and are involved in various cellular processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>miRNAs bind to mRNA and form complexes that inhibit translation, thus down-regulating gene expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Translation is the process where ribosomes synthesize proteins from mRNA using tRNA to match codons with corresponding amino acids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>5' capping and the poly-A tail protect mRNA from degradation and aid in the initiation of translation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ribosomes facilitate the matching of tRNA to mRNA codons and catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids to create polypeptides.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MYC addiction refers to the phenomenon where tumors depend heavily on MYC for survival, making it critical for tumor growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ras proteins, particularly K-Ras, act as GTPases that, when mutated, lead to uncontrolled activation of signaling pathways that promote cancer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor suppressor genes act as regulatory mechanisms that inhibit cell growth and can initiate apoptosis in response to DNA damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The 'two-hit' effect describes the requirement for both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene to be inactivated for loss of function to occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Genomic instability leads to increased mutations, which create a feedback loop that promotes further tumor progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both large-scale mutations, like chromosomal translocations, and small-scale mutations, such as point mutations, can contribute to cancer; small-scale mutations are more common.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Random mutations provide selective advantages to tumor cells, allowing them to proliferate uncontrollably.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenes promote cancer progression when mutated, while tumor suppressor genes inhibit growth and induce apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hereditary mutations can predispose individuals to cancer by requiring only one additional hit to inactivate the remaining allele of a tumor suppressor gene.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>UV radiation causes direct DNA damage and can lead to mutations that contribute to the development of skin cancer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The immune system helps remove pre-cancerous cells that arise from UV-induced DNA damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The 'Philadelphia chromosome' is a specific translocation associated with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), disrupting normal cell function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor heterogeneity results from genetic diversity within the tumor, making it difficult for therapies to effectively target all tumor cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in the Ras signaling pathway can lead to continuous cell growth and division due to the unregulated activation of downstream signaling cascades.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Chronic alcohol consumption can damage tissues directly and elevate hormone levels, increasing the risk of certain cancers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MicroRNAs can bind to mRNA and prevent ribosomes from attaching, thereby inhibiting translation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Translation initiation factors help assemble the ribosome complex and their availability can regulate translation efficiency based on the protein needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The relative abundance of tRNA and the preferential use of specific codons can regulate the rate of translation in different tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Chaperones are proteins that assist in the proper folding and stabilization of other proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phosphorylation is the addition of phosphate groups to proteins for activation, and phosphorylated kinases can indicate tumor presence or progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Epigenetic regulation involves changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA methylation leads to gene silencing by condensing DNA into a less accessible form, inhibiting transcription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Histone acetylation loosens chromatin structure, making it more accessible for transcription, while deacetylation condenses it, reducing accessibility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>HDACs remove acetyl groups from histones, leading to gene silencing and are associated with reduced transcription in cancer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cancer usually begins from a single abnormal cell due to genetic mutations or epigenetic changes leading to uncontrolled cell growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The stages include initiation (initial mutation), promotion (clonal expansion), and progression (invasive behavior).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in coding regions can directly impact cell behavior, while mutations in non-coding regions may not affect function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dysregulated gene expression in cancer involves increased growth-promoting genes and decreased apoptosis-regulating genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Common modifications include phosphorylation, glycosylation, methylation, and acetylation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in proto-oncogenes can activate them into oncogenes, leading to uncontrolled cell growth due to gain-of-function mutations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor suppressor genes typically inhibit cell division and facilitate DNA repair; their inactivation can remove crucial growth controls.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>EMT is a process where epithelial cells lose adhesion and gain migratory traits, facilitating cancer invasion and metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gene expression profiling can categorize breast cancer into subtypes, allowing for targeted therapies based on specific molecular features.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor heterogeneity leads to variations between and within tumors, complicating targeted therapies and contributing to relapse and drug resistance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Post-transcriptional dysregulation, such as abnormal splicing and mRNA stability, can alter the levels of proteins that drive cancer development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Profiling platelets can help classify disease subtypes and predict progression, making monitoring less invasive than bone marrow examinations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Clonal heterogeneity arises from genetic and epigenetic alterations, adaptive responses, and fluctuations in signaling pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenes result from gain-of-function mutations that enhance their activity, promoting excessive cell division and tumor growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Molecular profiling can identify deregulated pathways in a patient's cancer, leading to tailored treatment strategies specific to their tumor profile.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Alternative splicing can produce variant proteins that may promote uncontrolled cell division or inhibit apoptotic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor suppressor genes can be inactivated through mutations or deletions, leading to diminished control over cell growth and division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It allows for the classification of breast cancer into specific subtypes, each with distinct prognoses and responses to therapies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Understanding these alterations helps identify key pathways involved in cancer progression, informing targeted therapies and improving patient outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>BRAF inhibitors are used to target specific BRAF mutations in tumors, particularly in melanoma.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>AKT inhibitors induce apoptosis by blocking survival signals in cancer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Combination therapies target different pathways or components, which can help prevent or overcome resistance to treatments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hyperactivation can lead to aberrant cell proliferation and survival, contributing to carcinogenesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The PI3K-AKT pathway is crucial for promoting cell survival and growth, making it a target for cancer therapy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gleevec is designed to inhibit the BCR-ABL fusion protein, which is an oncogenic driver in certain leukemias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Resistance mechanisms, such as mutations in the targeted pathways, can limit the effectiveness of existing therapies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ongoing research focuses on developing new inhibitors and effective combination therapies to improve treatment outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To allow for fair comparisons of cancer incidence rates across different populations or time periods by adjusting for age distribution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It increased from 383/100,000 to 486/100,000.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Improved screening practices and technologies, leading to early detection of cancers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Asbestos exposure, reflecting past use of the material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The decline in smoking rates has led to a decrease in lung cancer rates, although there is a lag of about 20 years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Screening usually starts at age 50.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Screening tests identify individuals who may have a disease, while diagnostic tests confirm the presence or absence of a disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They can detect indolent cancers that may never progress or cause harm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The five-year survival rate has increased from around 50% to approximately 75%.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It indicates variability in recommendations and reliance on individual risk factors for screening decisions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To detect asymptomatic cancers early to improve treatment outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Advancements have led to improved detection capabilities, thus increasing reported cancer incidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Screening typically begins at age 25.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increased sun exposure over time and changes in diagnostic practices may contribute to higher melanoma rates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To understand the relationship between risk factors and disease outcomes, aiming to establish causation rather than mere association.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Association refers to a relationship between two variables, while causation implies that one variable directly affects another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Case-control studies compare individuals with a disease (cases) to those without (controls), while cohort studies follow disease-free individuals over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ecological fallacy occurs when associations observed at the group level do not reflect individual risk, making these studies less reliable for causal inference.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants in randomized controlled trials are randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a control group, which controls for confounding variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The odds ratio compares the odds of exposure in cases versus controls, providing insight into potential associations between exposures and diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Strength: Efficient for studying rare diseases. Limitation: Retrospective nature can introduce biases like recall bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Screening programs aim to detect diseases early to improve survival rates; however, they may have limitations such as false positives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A cohort is a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or event, followed over time to observe disease development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Comparison groups allow researchers to evaluate the impact of risk factors by contrasting outcomes between exposed and unexposed individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>PFAs are chemicals identified as Group 1 carcinogens; exposure increases cancer risk but does not guarantee cancer development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ecological studies rely on aggregated data, which may not accurately represent individual-level associations and can lead to incorrect conclusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MicroRNAs are small, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally by binding to target mRNAs and either inhibiting translation or inducing degradation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Long non-coding RNAs play roles in gene regulation by affecting chromatin remodeling, transcriptional regulation, and splicing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cohort studies follow individuals over time to compare disease incidence among those exposed to potential risk factors versus those who are not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They allow researchers to investigate rare diseases efficiently without waiting for new cases since they can look back at past exposures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in transcription factors, such as p53 or MYC, can lead to abnormal gene expression patterns, which are often associated with cancer development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Descriptive epidemiology focuses on the distribution of diseases in a population by observing the basic features of its distribution concerning time, place, and person.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Incidence refers to the number of new cases of a disease over a specific period, while prevalence refers to the total number of existing cases at a certain time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>As the population ages, the incidence of cancer cases increases due to older individuals being more likely to develop the disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cumulative incidence measures the risk of developing a condition by showing how many people will develop the disease within a specified timeframe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Age-standardized rates adjust for age differences in populations to allow fair comparisons of disease rates over time or between different populations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The main purpose of analytical epidemiology is to understand the determinants of diseases by exploring relationships between exposures and disease outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The microRNA-RISC complex inhibits translation or induces degradation of target mRNAs, thereby reducing protein production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Circular RNAs act as decoys for RNA-binding proteins or miRNAs, preventing their interaction with target RNAs, which indirectly affects gene expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The two main principles of epidemiology are understanding populations (who, where, when) and comparing differences between groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Population at risk refers to individuals who have the potential to become a case of the health event being studied.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels that supply the growing tumor with essential nutrients and oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The two primary pathways are the JAK-STAT pathway and the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The distinction is important because the crude incidence rate does not consider age distribution, whereas age-standardized rates adjust for age differences, allowing for fairer comparisons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Second messengers amplify the signal received from the receptor and initiate further cellular responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Kinases add phosphate groups to proteins, activating them, while phosphatases remove phosphate groups, deactivating them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>EGF binds to its receptor, activating signaling pathways that promote cell proliferation and survival, often dysregulated in cancer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>GPCRs are involved in numerous physiological processes and influence cell growth and survival through various signaling pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cytokine binding activates JAK proteins, which then phosphorylate STAT proteins, prompting their translocation to the nucleus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Receptor tyrosine kinases activate signaling pathways that lead to increased cell division and survival, contributing to cancer growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transcription factors regulate gene expression in response to intracellular signals, modulating cellular functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One example is Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF), which promotes cell proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>This pathway illustrates how growth factor binding can lead to a cascade of activations resulting in increased cell proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hormones like estrogen and testosterone bind to specific receptors, influencing gene expression and cellular responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cross-talk allows integration of multiple signaling pathways, enhancing the cell's ability to respond to complex stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Intracellular receptors bind lipophilic ligands and directly influence transcription, while cell surface receptors interact with hydrophilic ligands and initiate external signaling cascades.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cohort studies provide a clear temporal sequence by ensuring that exposure occurs before the disease develops.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cohort studies are advantageous because they can follow a group of individuals over time to observe the effects of rare exposures on multiple outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming, particularly when tracking diseases with long latency periods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Selection bias occurs when the cases and controls are not representative of the general population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Confounding can distort the association between a potential risk factor and a disease, affecting validity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Group 2B carcinogens are classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans, based on limited evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Accurate exposure assessment is crucial for establishing valid associations between risk factors and disease outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A biological gradient refers to a dose-response relationship where increased levels of exposure correspond to a higher risk of disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Signal transduction is critical because it governs how cells react to external signals that can influence cancer cell behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sustained proliferation is a hallmark of cancer where cancer cells continue to divide uncontrollably.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Hawthorne effect refers to changes in participant behavior due to awareness of being observed, which can bias study results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Statistical models are used to examine how specified factors, such as air pollution, influence disease rates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cohort studies can track a single population over time for various health outcomes resulting from a specific exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Long follow-up periods may lead to loss to follow-up, risking data completeness and affecting study results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Consistency in findings across different studies strengthens the argument for a causal relationship.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>AKT promotes cell survival and metabolism by phosphorylating various substrates such as mTOR, which enhances protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>AKT inhibitors target the AKT pathway, effectively inducing apoptosis by disrupting cell survival signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The BRAF V600E mutation is found in around 70% of melanomas and is a critical target for effective targeted therapies like Vemurafenib.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The key components are Ras, Raf, MEK, and ERK, which collectively regulate cell proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Gleevec targets the BCR-ABL fusion by binding to the ATP-binding site of the active kinase domain, inhibiting its activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Combining AKT inhibitors with other therapies enhances treatment efficacy and helps overcome resistance in cancer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The T315I mutation alters the binding pocket of BCR-ABL, preventing Imatinib from fitting properly and thus maintaining kinase activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>mTOR regulates protein synthesis and cell growth in response to the activation of AKT.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Strategies include using combination therapies that target different components of the signaling pathways or additional pathways altogether.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>PI3K activation leads to the formation of PIP3, which is crucial for activating AKT, thereby promoting cell survival and growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Trametinib is a MEK inhibitor used to target the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway, particularly in cancers with BRAF mutations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Targeted therapies allow for personalized treatment plans that specifically address the genetic characteristics of a patient's cancer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Combination therapy is significant for melanoma, especially with BRAF inhibitors and MEK inhibitors, to combat resistance and improve response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The PH domain of AKT binds to PIP3, which is crucial for its relocation to the plasma membrane and subsequent activation by PDK1.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The ras-raf-Erk pathway promotes cell proliferation, which is a hallmark of cancer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>EGFR activates downstream signaling by binding EGF, which triggers a cascade that leads to cell growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>B-RAF mutations lead to continuous cell proliferation and can be effectively targeted by specific inhibitors like Vemurafenib.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ras mutations are commonly associated with pancreatic, thyroid, and colon cancers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The JAK-STAT pathway involves cytokine binding to receptors, activating JAK proteins and leading to STAT dimerization and gene expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Therapeutic strategies include inhibitors of receptor tyrosine kinases, small molecule inhibitors, and monoclonal antibodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Resistance can occur through BRAF amplification, downstream mutations in MEK or ERK, and activation of alternate survival pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Akt is activated by various upstream signals and regulates multiple downstream pathways that promote cell survival and metabolism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Targeting this pathway can inhibit cell proliferation and is applicable to various cancers with EGFR mutations or amplifications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One common small molecule inhibitor is Trametinib, which specifically targets MEK.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Activation of the AKT pathway promotes cell survival and growth, which is advantageous for cancer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Monoclonal antibodies can bind to specific receptors like EGFR, blocking their activation and function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Understanding resistance mechanisms can help in developing new strategies or combination therapies to overcome treatment failures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Activated STAT dimers translocate to the nucleus and activate transcription of genes that promote cell survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They enter a phase called senescence, where they stop proliferating but do not die.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>High telomerase activity allows cancerous cells to continue dividing without entering senescence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They need to replicate throughout life, albeit at a low rate, to replace specific cell types and enable reproduction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The G0 phase is a stage where cells are not dividing and may be in senescence or terminal differentiation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is essential to complete DNA synthesis within approximately 8 hours.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>If the cell cycle is not completed correctly, the cell may undergo apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA is synthesized during the S-phase of the cell cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Only 3 to 5 errors are made by the enzymes that replicate DNA during each round of synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA is synthesized only in the 5’ to 3’ direction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The enzyme telomerase attempts to maintain telomere length.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Telomeres are the regions at the ends of chromosomes that protect them from degradation and fusion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Telomere length progressively shortens with each round of cell division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The shelterin complex protects telomeres and regulates their elongation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Defective telomerase function in dyskeratosis congenita leads to short telomeres.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cancer cells often exhibit high telomerase activity, allowing continuous division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The WRN gene defect is associated with Werner syndrome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>BIBR1532 inhibits the RNA template translocation needed for telomere extension.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>ALT stands for Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>TRF1 and TRF2 bind to telomeric DNA and regulate telomere extension and protection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Telomeres protect chromosome ends from degradation and prevent fusion with other chromosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One approach is the development of anti-hTERT cancer vaccines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They show decreased wound healing, premature aging, short telomeres, and increased cancer risk.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MYC increases the expression of cyclin D2 and CDK4, facilitating the progression from G1 to S phase of the cell cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>p53 upregulates the expression of p21, which helps arrest the cell cycle to allow for DNA repair or induce cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>These signaling pathways activate the expression of cyclin D1, promoting cell proliferation and aiding in the G1-S transition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MYC gene amplification can lead to uncontrolled cell cycle progression and increased cell division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Proper regulation ensures that cells only enter DNA replication when conditions are favorable, preventing inappropriate cell division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>CDK inhibitors are proteins like p21 and p16INK4a that regulate cell cycle progression and are targets for cancer therapies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cyclin D levels rise and outcompete Cip/Kip inhibitors, allowing the activation of cyclin E-CDK2 complexes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cancer cells are less responsive to external growth signals, leading to more rapid and uncontrolled proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Loss of Rb allows E2F transcription factors to remain active, driving unchecked progression into the S phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Telomerase activity helps maintain telomere length, enabling continued cell division and contributing to cancer cell immortality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Checkpoints ensure that errors in DNA replication are detected and corrected before the cell progresses to division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, such as cyclins or CDKs, can lead to unregulated cell cycle progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Targeting the cell cycle can selectively affect rapidly dividing cancer cells, but may also impact normal cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Effective cell cycle regulation and DNA repair are crucial for preventing cancer cell growth and ensuring treatment efficacy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell cycle control is targeted because its disruption is a key feature of cancer, making it a critical area for therapeutic innovation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Apoptosis is a controlled process that maintains membrane integrity until late stages, while necrosis results in loss of membrane integrity and cell lysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>ATP is essential in apoptosis as it drives the energy-dependent cellular machinery that regulates this process.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Caspase activity is vital for executing the apoptotic process, as these proteases are essential for cellular component breakdown.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Autophagy is activated under nutrient deprivation and stress conditions, and it can help cancer cells survive by removing damaged organelles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Necrosis is characterized by uncontrolled cell death leading to swelling and rupture, while apoptosis is controlled and maintains cellular integrity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By evading apoptosis, cancer cells gain the ability to survive even in the presence of damage, contributing to tumor progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Apoptosis eliminates damaged or unnecessary cells, thus maintaining normal tissue function and cellular balance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Differentiating between cell death types informs the development of targeted treatments that exploit specific vulnerabilities in cancer cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Techniques like the TUNEL assay and caspase activity assays are used to detect apoptotic cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in apoptosis-regulating genes can lead to resistance to cell death, informing the design of therapies that restore normal apoptotic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Autophagy can promote cancer cell survival under stress, but inhibition of autophagy may enhance the effectiveness of certain cancer therapies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ongoing research and trials are critical for improving existing therapies, minimizing side effects, and personalizing treatments for better outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Programmed cell death, like apoptosis, involves an orderly breakdown of the cell without eliciting inflammation, unlike necrosis which often triggers an inflammatory response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cyclin D binds to CDK4/6 to phosphorylate Rb, while cyclin E, replacing cyclin D, continues this phosphorylation with CDK2 to promote S phase entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Telomerase extends the repetitive units of telomeres, allowing cancer cells to bypass normal replication limits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>p53 activates p21 expression in response to DNA damage, which inhibits CDK complexes and halts cell cycle progression until repairs are made.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in p53 prevent cell cycle inhibition, while Rb mutations lead to uncontrolled E2F activity, driving excessive S phase entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The G1 to S phase checkpoint determines if a cell commits to replication by evaluating external signals and internal conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>CDKs regulate the cell cycle by phosphorylating target proteins necessary for progression at specific phases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenes, when mutated or overexpressed, drive excess cell proliferation, acting like an accelerator stuck in the 'on' position.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>CDK inhibitors prevent progression through the cell cycle by inhibiting specific cyclin-CDK complexes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>These pathways activate transcription factors and proteins that increase cyclin D levels, promoting the transition from G1 to S phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cyclin E-CDK2 initiates DNA replication, while cyclin A further drives this process, aiding in completing S phase efficiently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The R point is critical as it marks the point of no return where a cell commits to division despite external conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Targeted CDK4/6 inhibitors can specifically halt the cell cycle in tumors with excess cyclin D, leading to more effective cancer control.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>During the S phase, DNA replication occurs, resulting in the duplication of genetic material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cyclins are essential for CDK activity as they activate CDKs, allowing them to phosphorylate target proteins and drive the cell cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Understanding cell cycle mechanisms allows for the development of targeted therapies that can effectively disrupt tumor growth while sparing normal cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The G2 phase checkpoint ensures all DNA has been accurately replicated before the cell enters mitosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Traditional chemotherapy can harm rapidly dividing normal cells, leading to side effects like nausea, hair loss, and anemia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mutations in these inhibitors reduce their ability to stop the cell cycle, resulting in accelerated progression from G1 to S phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>External signals, like growth factors and nutrients, can control the expression of cyclins that regulate cell cycle progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Combination therapies use multiple treatment modalities to target different pathways, enhancing therapeutic efficacy and overcoming resistance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The INK4 family inhibits CDK4 and CDK6, preventing cells from progressing through the G1 phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Biomarkers help identify which patients might benefit from specific targeted therapies and monitor their responses to treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Unchecked cell proliferation leads to tumor formation and progression of cancer, as cells continuously divide without proper regulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The length of telomeres determines the number of cell divisions a somatic cell can undergo before entering senescence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Growth factor signaling activates pathways that enhance cyclin D expression, facilitating the transition from G1 to S phase in the cell cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cell cycle checkpoints serve to prevent cells from progressing through the cycle if conditions are not favorable, reducing mutation risks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Therapeutic resistance can arise from mutations in targeted pathway components, leading to continued cell cycle progression despite treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Telomerase inhibitors aim to limit the ability of cancer cells to extend their telomeres, thereby reducing their replication capacity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Caspases are critical proteases that mediate the events associated with apoptosis by executing the death program through the activation of effector caspases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phosphatidylserine exposes itself on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, acting as an 'eat me' signal for macrophages to engulf apoptotic cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Apoptosis is a controlled, non-inflammatory process that leads to cell death without harming surrounding tissues, while necrosis is an uncontrolled event resulting in inflammation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The intrinsic pathway is initiated by internal signals like DNA damage that lead to mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and the release of cytochrome c.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bax and Bak promote apoptosis by increasing mitochondrial permeability, facilitating the release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor suppressor genes like p53 enhance the expression of pro-apoptotic genes and decrease pro-survival gene expression to promote cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>During apoptosis, nucleases cleave DNA at specific sites, resulting in a characteristic ladder-like pattern seen on gel electrophoresis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bid can act both as a pro-apoptotic protein by promoting mitochondrial apoptosis and as an anti-apoptotic factor depending on the cellular context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bcl-2 family proteins regulate apoptosis by balancing pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals, influencing cell death and survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Apoptosis is crucial in cancer treatment because evasion of apoptosis allows cancer cells to survive; targeting apoptotic pathways can sensitize tumors to therapy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Anti-apoptotic factors prevent programmed cell death, allowing cancer cells to survive longer despite genomic damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Feedback loops involve activated caspases that can further activate other caspases or degrade inhibitors, fine-tuning the apoptotic response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>INK4 family proteins inhibit CDK4/6-cyclin D complexes, preventing cell cycle progression from G1 to S phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Granzyme A is a serine protease released by cytotoxic T cells that promotes apoptosis in target cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cip/Kip family proteins, such as p21 and p27, inhibit cyclin D-CDK4/6 activity, blocking cell cycle progression and maintaining quiescence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Rb inhibits the activation of E2F transcription factors, preventing the expression of genes necessary for S phase entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The hyperphosphorylation of Rb is triggered by increased activity of cyclin E-CDK2 complexes that phosphorylate Rb.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cyclin-CDK complexes, particularly cyclin E-CDK2, phosphorylate Rb, leading to its inactivation and the release of E2F.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>High cyclin D levels promote the formation of cyclin D-CDK4/6 complexes, enhancing G1 progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>As the cell transitions to S phase, p21 and p27 levels decrease, resulting in reduced inhibition of cyclin E-CDK2 complexes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cip/Kip inhibitors can inhibit cyclin D-CDK4/6 complexes while also potentially promoting formation of these complexes in a mitogenic context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hypophosphorylated Rb recruits HDACs, leading to histone deacetylation and closed chromatin, which represses transcription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hyperphosphorylated Rb does not bind E2F, allowing histone acetylases to activate transcription by opening chromatin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Disruption of Cip/Kip inhibitors leads to unregulated activity of cyclin D-CDK4/6 and cyclin E-CDK2 complexes, promoting S phase entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cyclin E-CDK2 complexes hyperphosphorylate Rb, inactivating it and allowing E2F to trigger S phase gene expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Rb is a tumor suppressor because it regulates the G1 to S phase transition, inhibiting uncontrolled cell proliferation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Growth factor signals increase cyclin D levels, activating CDK4/6 complexes and promoting progression through the G1 phase.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bcl-2 family proteins inhibit apoptosis by preventing the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins, thereby promoting cell survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>BH3-only proteins bind to anti-apoptotic proteins, inhibiting them and allowing Bax and Bak to promote mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Caspases, once activated, cleave various substrates to carry out the execution phase of apoptosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>p53 promotes apoptosis by increasing the expression of pro-apoptotic genes while inhibiting anti-apoptotic genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cancer cells often overexpress anti-apoptotic proteins or downregulate pro-apoptotic proteins, allowing them to survive despite stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Granzyme A is released by cytotoxic T cells and induces apoptosis through caspase-independent pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MOMP allows the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, triggering the apoptosome formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inhibitors of Apoptosis (IAPs) bind to and inhibit activated caspases, thus blocking the apoptotic process.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The PI3K/Akt pathway promotes cell survival by phosphorylating pro-apoptotic proteins and inhibiting their activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Techniques include caspase-specific substrates for fluorescence detection and the TUNEL assay to identify DNA fragmentation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The extrinsic pathway is triggered by death receptors on the cell surface, typically mediated by caspase-8.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Targeting anti-apoptotic proteins can help induce apoptosis in cancer cells, improving treatment outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The TUNEL assay labels fragmented DNA, indicating apoptotic cells, distinguishing them from necrotic cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Modulating apoptosis may help prevent neuronal loss in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>E-cadherin facilitates cell adhesion and contact inhibition, preventing tumor cells from dissociating.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MMPs degrade extracellular matrix components, allowing tumor cells to move through tissues and invade.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The interaction regulates tumor cell adhesion and movement, impacting their invasive capabilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor cells modify integrin expression to enhance attachment to ECM and promote migration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>TIMPs inhibit MMP activity, potentially reducing the invasive capacity of tumor cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor cells can migrate via mesenchymal migration, collective migration, or amoeboid migration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor cells can alter their migration mode in response to environmental cues and ECM composition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increased MMP expression is strongly correlated with greater invasive and metastatic potential in tumors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Loss of contact inhibition allows tumor cells to grow uncontrollably and invade surrounding tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The ECM is primarily composed of collagens, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Promigratory factors enhance tumor cell motility and invasion through the ECM.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Proteases degrade ECM components, facilitating tumor cells' migration into surrounding tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Collective migration provides structural protection for inner cells and increases efficiency in moving through tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>This induction can lead to excessive ECM degradation, promoting invasion and metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The ECM is critical for separating tissue compartments and providing mechanical support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>p53 helps regulate the cell cycle and promotes apoptosis in response to DNA damage; its loss of function allows damaged cells to survive and proliferate, contributing to tumorigenesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bcl-2 overexpression inhibits pro-apoptotic signals, promoting cell survival and contributing to the resistance of cancer cells to programmed cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>HPV produces E6 and E7 proteins that bind to and inhibit p53 function, preventing the cell from undergoing apoptosis in response to DNA damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>BH3 mimetics, such as Venetoclax, are drugs that inhibit anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl-2, restoring pro-apoptotic signals to trigger cancer cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The loss of pro-apoptotic signaling molecules leads to an unbalanced apoptotic pathway, allowing cancer cells to evade programmed cell death and thereby enhancing tumor survival and growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cancer cells can evade destruction by downregulating MHC molecules and increasing immune suppressive proteins like PD-L1, allowing them to hide from cytotoxic T cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The intrinsic pathway is regulated by internal signals related to cellular stress or damage, while the extrinsic pathway is activated by external signals from death receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenic viruses may produce proteins that block apoptotic pathways (like HPV's E6/E7 inhibiting p53) or mimic anti-apoptotic proteins (like EBV mimicking Bcl-2).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inactivation of the Rb protein disrupts cell cycle regulation, allowing cells to progress through the cycle without undergoing apoptosis in response to stress signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inactivation of Bax, a pro-apoptotic protein, reduces the apoptotic response, allowing cancer cells to survive even when pro-apoptotic signals are present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Enhanced expression of immune suppressive proteins inhibits the immune response against tumor cells, facilitating tumor growth and metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Understanding apoptotic pathways can lead to targeted therapies that reactivate apoptosis in resistant cancer cells, improving treatment efficacy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Caspase inactivating mutations prevent the execution of apoptosis, allowing cancer cells to avoid programmed cell death and promoting survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Evasion of apoptosis is recognized as a hallmark of cancer as it allows tumors to survive and proliferate despite various cellular stresses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>E-cadherin is a protein that provides cell-cell adhesion in normal epithelial tissue, maintaining tissue integrity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>MMPs are enzymes that degrade extracellular matrix components, allowing cancer cells to invade surrounding tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Integrins are transmembrane receptors that mediate cell-matrix interactions, influencing cancer cell shape, movement, and signaling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mesenchymal migration involves slow, protease-dependent movement through the ECM, while amoeboid migration is fast and protease-independent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases (TIMPs) regulate MMP activity, affecting the balance between tissue invasion and inhibition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Angiogenesis is crucial for tumor growth as it provides the necessary blood supply for nutrients and waste removal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The 'seed and soil' hypothesis suggests that metastatic cancer cells (seeds) thrive in specific microenvironments (soil) conducive to their growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Intravasation is the entry of tumor cells into blood vessels, which is critical for the dissemination of cancer throughout the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Extravasation is the exit of tumor cells from blood vessels into surrounding tissues, enabling the establishment of metastases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The loss of cell adhesion, such as through E-cadherin downregulation, facilitates cancer cell invasion into surrounding tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor-platelet thrombi help protect circulating tumor cells from immune detection and assist in their survival during blood flow.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The anatomical origin of the cancer, blood flow patterns, and local tissue environments influence the preferred sites for metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Collective migration refers to groups of cancer cells moving together, which can increase protection from immune responses and enhance movement efficiency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Matrix dissolution refers to the breakdown of the extracellular matrix, which is critical for tumor cells to invade surrounding tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dissemination via lymphatics is typical for carcinomas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Tumor cells penetrate venous spaces and follow the venous flow, often depositing in the first capillary bed they encounter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncogenes are mutated versions of proto-oncogenes that can transform normal cells into malignant cells, while proto-oncogenes are normal genes that regulate cellular growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Only about 0.01% of circulating tumor cells successfully initiate metastatic colonies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Platelets can provide a survival advantage for tumor cells by shielding them from the immune system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Viral oncogenes (v-onc) are incorporated into the host genome by viruses, while cellular oncogenes (c-onc) are naturally found in the host genome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It refers to how certain tumor cells (the seed) have an affinity for specific organs (the soil) that facilitate metastasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The p53 protein regulates the cell cycle and induces cell cycle arrest or apoptosis in response to DNA damage, preventing the propagation of damaged cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oncoviruses can influence hallmarks such as sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, and enabling replicative immortality.</p> Signup and view all the answers