Neolithic Revolution: Farming & Social Change

• These are study notes relating to the transition from foraging to farming in the Near East, social and economic impacts and archaeological evidence for these changes.

The Younger Dryas and the Shift to Farming

• The Younger Dryas (12,900 to 11,700 years ago) was a period of abrupt cooling that led to drought and reduced wild resources in the Near East.
• Communities began experimenting with plant cultivation as a more reliable food source.
• Abu Hureyra in modern Syria shows increased management of wild cereals during this time.
• The unpredictability of resources encouraged early agricultural practices and a greater control over food production.
• This climatic event accelerated the transition to farming and permanent, sedentary communities.
• Cultural and social factors also played roles in this transition, variying by region.

Impact of the Neolithic Transition on Social Organization and Economic Structures

• The Neolithic transition involved a shift from foraging to farming, leading to fundamental social and economic changes.
• Domestication allowed for food surpluses, supporting larger, more permanent settlements.
• Specialization of labor became possible as not everyone needed to produce food.
• Differences in resource access led to social stratification.
• Çatalhöyük in Turkey shows some households accumulated more wealth, displayed in burials and goods.
• New forms of community cooperation and governance emerged, required for the planning of fields and management of livestock.
• Communal architecture like storage at Jerf el-Ahmar indicates coordinated food storage and distribution efforts.
• Social roles emerged linked to agricultural production and property ownership.
• These changes fostered greater cohesion but also introduced conflicts over resources.
• The Neolithic transition laid the foundation for stratified societies with distinct economic and social hierarchies.

Faunal Evidence from Hallan Çemi

• Hallan Çemi in Turkey, dated to approximately 11,000 BP.
• Provides insights into early animal management during the Neolithic transition.
• The focus was on wild pigs (Sus scrofa), and indicates inhabitants selectively hunted, and possibly managed their populations.
• Age and sex profiles of pig remains show targeted culling, particularly young males.
• This pattern suggests early herd management to sustain local populations while preserving breeding females.
• There is no evidence of domesticated species.
• The controlled exploitation of wild pigs marks a step toward domestication
• Diversified subsistence strategy combining animal management with traditional foraging also took place.
• Faunal evidence reveals the gradual manipulation of animal populations, leading to agricultural economies.

Explanations for the Transition to Agriculture

• There are several theories that explain the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agriculture.
• A "climatic change hypothesis" suggests that cooling especially during the Younger Dryas reduced available wild resources.
• The environmental pressure resulted in communities experimenting with cultivating plants and domesticating animals.
• A "population pressure hypothesis" argues that increasing human populations strained traditional foraging systems.
• As populations grew, agriculture provided a sustainable way to feed larger communities.
• A "social hypothesis" proposes that agriculture emerged through social and cultural factors, like a desire to produce surplus for trade, feasting, and status.
• The theory emphasizes how social competition may have driven early farming practices.
• A "coevolutionary hypothesis" suggests that the domestication of plants and animals resulted from mutual adaptation between humans and their environment.
• These theories suggest a combination of ecological, demographic, and social dynamics contributed to the emergence of agriculture.

Evidence of Communal Food Storage at Jerf el-Ahmar

• Jerf el-Ahmar is a Pre-Pottery Neolithic site in northern Syria.
• The site reveals evidence of early communal food storage and circular subterranean structures, differing from domestic dwellings.
• Thick plastered floors and central storage bins likely functioned as communal granaries.
• Large grinding stones and hearths indicate communal food processing activities.
• The complexity and central placement of storage facilities imply collective resource management, crucial for larger populations and mitigating food shortages.
• Communal storage reflects economic centralization and cooperation.
• Early agricultural communities were collectively managing surplus production, fostering cooperation and responsibility.
• This development played a key role in the transition from egalitarian foraging groups to more complex, hierarchical societies with formalized economic practices.

Burial Practices at el-Wad Terrace

• El-Wad Terrace is a Natufian site in Israel which gives insights into social structures through burial practices.
• Excavations reveal individual and collective graves, suggesting emerging social differentiation.
• Some burials include goods like shell beads, carved stone objects, and animal bones, indicating differences in social status or roles.
• Graves are located within or near domestic structures, suggesting connections between the living and the dead.
• Integration of burial and domestic space implies that kinship was central to Natufian social organization.
• Secondary burials suggest ritualized mortuary practices and ongoing social memory.
• Variability in burial practices reflects a society in transition from mobile hunter-gatherer groups to more sedentary communities.

Animal Remains in Epipaleolithic Archaeological Sites

• Epipaleolithic archaeological sites contain common animal remains such as gazelle, deer, wild boar, hares, birds, fish and shellfish.
• These suggest a broad-spectrum subsistence strategy with a diversified diet.
• This shift is often interpreted as a response to environmental changes and population pressures during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene.
• Ohalo II in the Levant shows increased evidence of fish usage, indicating a reliance on both terrestrial and aquatic resources.
• Diversification is seen as a key adaptation that allowed human populations to thrive in fluctuating environments.

Problems with Archaeological Evidence in the Near East

• Arid climate leads to degradation of organic materials, such as bone and plant remains. Mudbrick structures are well-preserved, but organic artifacts are often poorly so.
• Political instability, ongoing conflicts have limited access to key archaeological sites and led to the destruction of cultural heritage.
• Complex stratigraphy resulting from continuous human occupation over millennia creates interpretation challenges. Distinguishing deposits requires meticulous excavation and analysis.

Negative Health Impacts of the Neolithic Transition

• The Neolithic transition brought negative health impacts.
• Increased evidence of malnutrition, infectious diseases, and dental pathologies
• Reliance on a limited number of domesticated crops led to nutritional deficiencies
• Skeletal remains from Neolithic sites show signs of anemia and stunted growth
• Sedentary lifestyles and proximity to domesticated animals increased the spread of zoonotic diseases
• Dental caries also became more common due to increased carbohydrate consumption.

Significance of Tell Abu Hureyra

• Tell Abu Hureyra provides detailed records of the transition from foraging to farming in the Levant.
• Shows the movement from Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherer occupation to early Neolithic farming communities.
• Archaeobotanical evidence reveals the domestication of cereals like rye
• Faunal remains indicate a shift from hunting gazelle to herding sheep and goats
• It reflects broader changes in subsistence strategies and social organization during the Neolithic Revolution.

Environmental Changes in the Levant and their Impact

• During the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene, the Levant experienced climatic fluctuations, including the Younger Dryas
• Led to shifts in vegetation, with forests expanding and deserts retreating.
• Human populations adapted by diversifying their subsistence strategies
• Evidence of wild cereal exploitation is present at Ohalo II
• Warmer, wetter conditions in the Early Holocene facilitated the domestication of plants and animals, enabling agricultural societies.

Circular Structures at Wadi Hammeh 27

• Wadi Hammeh 27, an early Natufian site, contains circular structures that provide insights into domestic life and social organization.
• Structures are interpreted as dwellings and suggest a shift toward more sedentary lifestyles.
• Hearths, grinding stones, and storage pits indicates activities related to food processing and storage.
• Increased investment in place and development of complex social structures.

New Technologies in Early Uruk

• Early Uruk saw the development of the wheel, plow, and writing.
• The wheel facilitated transportation and trade, while the plow revolutionized agriculture.
• Cuneiform writing was initially for administrative purposes, and marked an advancement in record-keeping and communication.
• The new technologies supported urban growth and complex economies.

Dorothy Garrod’s Contributions to Epipaleolithic Levant

• Dorothy Garrod's work fundamentally shaped the study of the Epipaleolithic Levant.
• She identified the Natufian culture at Mount Carmel, a key transitional phase.
• Her excavation techniques allowed for a chronological framework of cultural developments in the region.
• Her discovery of Natufian artifacts highlighted the complexity of Epipaleolithic societies.
• Garrod’s work laid the foundation for research on the origins of sedentism and agriculture.

Plant Remains at Netiv Hagdud and Early Cereal Domestication

• At Netiv Hagdud, plant remains like wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) and wild wheat (Triticum dicoccoides) provide insights into early cereal domestication.
• The remains show evidence of morphological changes, indicative of human selection and cultivation.
• Storage facilities at the site suggest early farmers were experimenting with managing and storing surplus crops.
• The site represents a key stage in the shift from foraging to farming, demonstrating plant domestication in the Levant.

Significance of the Natufian Culture

• The Natufian culture is significant because it represents the movement from mobile hunter-gatherer societies to more sedentary, complex communities.
• Sites such as Ain Mallaha and Wadi Hammeh 27, show evidence of semi-permanent settlements, with structures, storage pits, and burials.
• The Natufians intensified the use of wild cereals and developed grinding tools, foreshadowing Neolithic agricultural practices.
• Their social and technological innovations laid the groundwork for plant and animal domestication.

Features of Uruk Culture in the Late Uruk Period

• During the Late Uruk period, features of Uruk culture spread across the Near East through trade, colonization, and cultural influence.
• Key features include bevelled-rim bowls, cylinder seals, and monumental architecture.
• These elements have been identified at sites like Habuba Kabira in Syria and Godin Tepe in Iran,
• The spread of cuneiform writing and standardized weights and measures underscores Uruk's role as a cultural and economic center.

Origin and Use of the Term "Middle East"

• The term "Middle East" was coined in the early 20th century by Alfred Thayer Mahan.
• It described the region between India and the Ottoman Empire.
• It gained use during World War I, particularly through British discourse.
• The area encompasses modern-day countries like Iraq, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula.

Ain Mallaha (Eynan) and Early Natufian Sedentism

• The site of Ain Mallaha, provides evidence of early sedentism.
• Site features circular stone structures, interpreted as dwellings, alongside hearths, storage pits, and grinding stones.
• Natufian communities were establishing semi-permanent settlements.
• Human burials within the structures indicates a connection to place.
• Exploitation of local resources, such as wild cereals and gazelle, supports the idea of reduced mobility.
• Ain Mallaha reflects the shift toward sedentary lifeways, a precursor to Neolithic agricultural societies.

Plant Processing Evidence at Ohalo II

• Ohalo II provides some of the earliest evidence of plant processing during the Epipaleolithic.
• Archaeobotanical remains include a wide variety of wild plants with signs of processing.
• The variety includes barley, wheat, and small-seeded grasses
• Grinding stones and hearths suggest that the processing and cooking of plant foods.
• There was a sophisticated understanding of plant resources and their preparation.
• Ohalo II offers insight into the dietary practices and technological innovations of early hunter-gatherer societies.

Key Differences Between the Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran Cultures

• The Kebaran culture and the Geometric Kebaran culture represent distinct phases within the Epipaleolithic period.
• The Kebaran is characterized by its microlithic tool industry, primarily small, backed bladelets.
• The Geometric Kebaran culture is defined by geometric microliths, such as trapezoids and lunates.
• The Geometric Kebaran shows evidence of increased sedentism and broader resource exploitation.
• These differences suggest a gradual shift toward complex subsistence strategies and social organization.

Aspects of Ubaid Culture in Mesopotamia

• The Ubaid culture in Mesopotamia is notable for several key developments.
• Large, planned settlements emerged, with monumental architecture that included temples with tripartite plans.
• Pottery was often decorated with geometric designs
• The Ubaid period saw hierarchical societies that is evidenced through burials and public buildings.
• The Ubaid culture laid the groundwork for later Mesopotamian civilizations through innovations in irrigation, agriculture, and trade networks.

Evidence of Plant Processing in Epipaleolithic Levant

• Epipaleolithic groups in the Levant utilized plant processing.
• Sites such as Ohalo II and Nahal Ein Gev II shows this.
• At Ohalo II, charred plant remains, show signs of grinding and cooking, which is supported by the discovery of grinding stones and hearths.
• At Nahal Ein Gev II sickle blades with gloss suggest the harvesting of wild cereals.
• Epipaleolithic communities were exploiting plant resources and technologies for processing them.

Unique Architectural Features at Hayonim Cave

• Hayonim Cave, a Natufian site, features unique architectural elements, such as stone structures, hearths, and storage pits.
• Circular or semi-subterranean dwellings suggest sedentism.
• The cave contains evidence of burials within the living areas, indicating a symbolic connection.
• These features reflect the Natufian transition toward settled lifeways, with increased social complexity and a focus on resources.

Resources for Reconstructing Near Eastern Chronologies

• Archaeologists rely on two resources to reconstruct Near Eastern chronologies: stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating.
• Stratigraphy provides a relative sequence of cultural layers, and successive occupation levels reveal long-term human activity.
• Radiocarbon dating, offers absolute dates with organic materials, and provides precise chronological frameworks.
• These methods allow archaeologists to correlate developments across regions and periods.

Factors Leading to the Adaptation of Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent

• The adaptation of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent was driven by environmental changes, population pressure, and availability of domesticable species.
• The Younger Dryas created resource stress and promoted cultivation and animal management.
• The region’s flora and fauna such as wild cereals and goats enabled domestication.
• Sedentism and social complexity incentivized food production to support growing communities.

Plant and Animal Resources Integral to Subsistence Shifts

• The subsistence shifts relied on plants and animals.
• Plants such as wild barley, wheat, and legumes, were among the first to be domesticated.
• Animals like goats, sheep, and cattle were domesticated for their meat, milk, and labor.
• These resources enabled the transition from foraging to farming, and supported larger populations leading to complex societies.