Native and Deep Ecology

Lecture 4: Native and Deep Ecology

• Environmental Values and Ethics ACES 1103 concerns Native and Deep Ecology.

Native Ecology

• Overview
• Native Species
• Historic Aversion to Foreigners
• An Ethic for Invasive Species
• Three Ethical Theories

Native species

• A species is considered native if it lives in a place because of the natural climate, not human intervention.
• A native species originated and developed in its surrounding environment and adapted to living in that particular area.
• In biogeography, a native species is indigenous to a region or ecosystem if its presence results from local natural evolution.
• This is popularly phrased as with no human intervention and includes any wild organism.

Invasive Species

• An invasive species is not indigenous to a particular area.
• Invasive species can cause economic and environmental harm to a new area.
• Invasive species can harm natural resource in ecosystems and threaten human usage of those resources.
• An invasive species can be introduced via ballast water of oceangoing ships, intentional or accidental releases of aquaculture species, aquarium specimens or bait.
• Invasive species can cause extinctions of native plants and animals, reduce biodiversity, compete with native organisms for limited resources, and alter habitats.
• The presence of invasive species can result in huge economic impact and fundamental disruptions of coastal and Great Lake ecosystems.
• Invasive species introduction can occur through traveling and luggage, ships and boats, backyards, introduction as pets or pest control, escaping climate change, and migration.

Ethics for Invasive Species

• The management of invasive species puts theories of environmental ethics and animal rights at odds with each other.
• There is theoretical division between the value of individual animal lives in relation to the value of whole systems.
• Invasive organisms are in a unique position that makes them difficult to categorize, ethically speaking,
• Though discourses may share goals of promotion of biodiversity, respect for nature, and protection of endangered species.

Three Ethical Theories

• Animal Liberation

  • Singer's ethical theory is based on consequentialism.
  • Argues that animal suffering should be taken seriously when contemplating the consequences of an action.
  • Even if killing invasive animals is necessary, the interests of those animals must be considered to avoid the large amounts of suffering caused by current methods of control.

• The Land Ethic

  • Aldo Leopold's land ethic provides a different view on the issue of killing invasive animals.
  • It expands traditional ethical thinking beyond humans, arguing obligations also exist to the land and all that is a part of it.
  • Leopold considers the word "land" to also refer to aquatic ecosystems and non-living components of ecosystems, such as soil and water.
  • 'Land' is an all-encompassing concept including terrestrial, aquatic, living, and non-living parts of ecosystems.

• The Land Ethic vs Animal Liberation

  • Singer's and Leopold's ethical theories diverge on many practical issues, especially killing invasive animals.
  • Critics argue that animal liberation places value only on sentient individuals.
  • Leopold's land ethic places value in the biotic community, which consists of nonsentient entities in addition to sentient individuals.
  • Environmentalists cannot be animal liberationists and vice versa.
  • The environmentalist would potentially sacrifice creatures to preserve the authenticity, integrity, and complexity of ecological systems.

Deep Ecology

• Deep ecology is a radical environmental philosophy that was articulated and presented in April of 1984 by Arne Naess and George Sessions.
• Deep ecology gathers up environmental thought with eight basic principles.
• Deep ecology is a compilation of decades of thought and ideas that was drawn from many different religions and philosophies.
• The movement has been attributed its influence to many people over time.

Intrinsic Value

• According to Næss, deep ecology is not one direction and rather a theory is valuable for contemplation about and criticism.
• The theory is not radical, but puts nature into the focus instead of humans.
• It emphasizes the intrinsic value of nature.
• Humans must recognize nature's intrinsic value to protect the natural environment.
• Næss emphasized the importance of protecting the planet not only for the sake of humans, but also for the sake of the planet itself, which requires keeping ecosystems healthy for their own sake.

Principles of Deep Ecology

• American philosopher Sessions developed eight essential principles for deep ecology mid-1980s.
  • Inherent Value: The well-being of human and nonhuman life on earth has intrinsic values, separate from human uses or proposes
  • Diversity: Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of values and are intrinsic values
  • Vital Needs: Humans have no right to reduce richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs
  • Population: The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population.

Human Interference

• The present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.

Policy Change

• Policies that must be changed affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures.
• The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.

Quality of Life

• The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living.

Obligation of Action

• Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to implement the necessary changes.

Criticisms of Deep Ecology

• There is a critique from the ecofeminist movement.

  • Dislikes the association that deep ecology makes of both women and men as the cause of the environmental crisis.
  • Fails to make connections between men's domination of nature and women, as well as other marginalized groups.
  • Does not consider how gender inequality contributes to environmental destruction.

• Deep ecology has been accused of being antihuman: criticism of this view comes from scholars and adherents of social ecology.

  • Murray Bookchin, founder of social ecology, rejected deep ecology's biocentric orientation that regards humans as an outsized threat to non-human life on the planet.
  • Other critics question deep ecology's vision pristine wilderness, as utopian and undesirable.

• Deep ecology calls to substantially decrease the global population to address humanity's voracious consumption. -The call to deep ecology sparked controversy. -This raised concerns about human rights abuses if draconian controls like forced abortion and sterilization were imposed to reduce global population.

• Richard A. Watson finds deep ecology to be hypocritical for wanting man to be treated equally with nature. -In deep ecology, all nature is allowed to live out its evolutionary potential. -Man is supposed to not do so. -Moving beyond anthropocentrism risks losing the majority of population in the environmental, and this is where Naess and Sessions have failed most of all.

Lecture 5: Environmental Justice

• Environmental justice is part of the ACES 1103 course.
• The world view of the course considers the environmental values of plants, mountains, humans, animals, rivers, and watersheds.

Environmental Justice

• Environmental justice is a social movement focused on ameliorating circumstances where people of color and low-income earners are exposed to environmental harms and / or lack access to environmental benefits.
• It gained traction in the US during the early to mid-1980s.
• environmental justice seeks the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income.
• It seeks involvement with the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

Issues on Environmental Justice include:

• Inadequate access to healthy food
• Inadequate transportation
• Air and water pollution
• Unsafe homes

Early examples of successful campaigns include:

• The African American community fights against a PCB landfill in Warren County, North Carolina

• Latino mothers of East LA fight to prevent the construction of a waste incinerator in their community

• Latino farm-workers fight to prevent poisoning from pesticides and herbicides.

• The movement spanned the US with issues such as uranium enrichment facilities, lead paint in old homes and disposal of radioactive waste in the early 90's.

• Government agencies take longer to respond to complaints from low income non-White communities.

• These communities are less likely to take punitive action against polluters.

• Remediation is less stringent than that of action in white and wealthy communities.

Arguments Against Environmental Justice

• Some scholars argue that claims of injustice may be difficult to substantiate if it's unclear who or what came first, like unwanted environments and vulnerable communities.
• If the hazard came first, then that outcome is not an injustice.
• Vulnerability is associated with the notions of choice.
  • The less choice people have, the more vulnerable they are to exploitation and or harm.
  • Those with low paying jobs may only be able to afford the cheapest houses which are dilapidated and infested with vermin or near a polluting factory or radioactive land.
• Socio-demographic change shows wealthy White residents flee inner-city locations in search of suburban refuges.
  • This 'White flight' leaves behind those without means of escape, institutional discrimination and intentional targeting.
• If decision makers and enforcement agencies are dominated by wealthier Whites, power-relations will likely favor the interests of Whites over others through regional racial formations.

Geographers' Contributions

• Scholars have worked alongside geographers to identify where, when, how and why environmental injustices occur, revealing populations and communities that are vulnerable to natural hazards, park deprived, and near polluting industries.
• Geographers have developed array methods and techniques to identify and ameliorate instances of injustice.
• These methods range from mapping connections between vulnerable populations and sources of environmental harm using (GIS) Geographic Information Systems, to showing how many environmental injustices exist.

Principles of Environmental Justice

• Affirms the sacredness of Mother Earth, ecological unity and interdependence of all species, and the right to be free from ecological destruction.
• Demands that public policy be based on mutual respect and justice for all peoples, free from any form of discrimination or bias.
• Advocates the right to ethical, balanced and responsible use of land and renewable resources in the interest of a sustainable planet for human and other living things.
• Calls for universal protection from nuclear testing, extraction, production and disposal of toxic/hazardous wastes and poisons and nuclear testing that threaten the fundamental right to clean air, land, water, and food.
• Demands the cessation of the production of all toxins, hazardous wastes, and radioactive materials, and that all past and current producers be held strictly accountable to the people for detoxification and the containment at the point of production.
• Environmental Justice desires the right to participate as equal partners at every level of decision making.
• Environmental Justice affirms the right of all workers to a safe and healthy work environment without being forced to choose between unsafe livelihood and unemployment.
• Environmental Justice protects the right of victims of environmental injustice to receive full compensation and reparations for damages as well as quality health care.
• Environmental justice considers governmental acts of environmental injustice a violation of international law, The Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and The United Nations Convention of Genocide.
• Environmental Justice must recognize a special legal and natural relationship of Native Peoples to the US government through treaties, agreements, affirming sovereignty and sell determination.
• Environmental Justice calls for the strict enforcement of principles of informed consent and a halt to the testing of experimental reproductive and medical procedures and vaccinations on people of color.
• Environmental Justice opposes the destructive operations of multi-national corporations.
• Environmental Justice opposes military occupation, repression and exploitation of lands, peoples and cultures.
• Environmental Justice calls for the education of present and future generations which emphasizes social and environmental issues.
• Environmental Justice requires that we, as individuals, consume as little of Mother Earth's resources and produce as little waste as possible.

Points for Further Thought

• Is the Principle of Commensurate Burdens and Benefits fair? Would another principle be fairer?
• What institutional changes might improve substantive environmental justice? What changes might improve procedural environmental justice?
• In your view, what are the strongest arguments for and against the idea that We have obligations to future generations?

Lecture 6: Social Ecology

• Social Ecology is part of the ACES 1103 course.
• The world view of the course considers the environmental values of plants, mountains, humans, animals, rivers, and watersheds.

Social Ecology

• Founded by activist Murray Bookchin.
• Social ecology is an approach to society that embraces a ecological, reconstructive, and communitarian view on society.
• Social ecology seeks reconstruct and transform current outlooks on social and environmental factors promoting direct democracy.
• It looks to do away with scarcity and hierarchy in the economy instead working together with nature to promote diversity, creativity and freedom.
• Murray Bookchin was an important figure in ecology movement developments of the 20th century.
• Murray wrote foundational works such as Post-Scarcity Anarchism, Toward an Ecological Society

Principles of Social Ecology

• Ecological problems are results of social dysfunctions in human society by societal approach.
  • The core fundamental social ecology principles include that ecological issues directly result from social issues to be resolved with amending social issues. -Social factors such as racism, poverty, and sexism lead to environmental problems. -Social Ecology prioritizes the establishment of a more egalitarian society through equality and cooperation with less focus on individual profiting. -Social ecology believes less inequality in the world will decrease environmental consequences.

The Social Ecological Model

• The study of social issues by examining the relationships between all of society's working parts.
• A social science theory that analyzes the relationships between social factors and environmental factors.
• Created by Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1979.

Social Ecological Model Levels

• Micro system
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem
• Chronosystem

Social Ecological Model examinations

• Interactions between microsystems are in a childs immediate and physical social environment
• mesosystems (systems within the environment)
• Exosystems are the broader social, political, and economic conditions
• Macrosystems focus on the shared beliefs and attitudes of the society
• Macrosystem influence to exert influence exosystems.
• Exosystems influence microsystems which affect a childs development.
• Everything can be connected to something else.

Human Beings

• Capitalism majority system calls for competition, profit, and industrial expansion.
• Underlying causes of ecological problems results directly from social ones.
• Social ecologists see that dismissing ecological problems comes with ignoring economic, political, and social problems.
• Dismissing economic, political, and social problems are often at the root that leads to oil spills and water pollutants harmful to the environment.

Social Issues

• Environmental problems stemming from hierarchical issues, the core of social ecology, surround the deforestation of rainforests since resources from that area provide dependence and competitive demands for palm oil result in social conflict.
• Corporations buy up land with the high demand leads to conflicts.
• Corporations essentially steal natural resources from local communities.
• Workers that are moved in create fewer jobs for locals.
• A wealth gap is created.
• Over 50 million Indonesians rely on their forests for their livelihoods.
• Buying and exploiting land by corporation cases social and cultural issues.

Social Ecology Critics

• Social ecology is less diverse than other ecological movements, but that gives it certain strength in coherence.
• Social ecology doesn't provide an entirely convincing case that there is a clear relation between social hierarchy and destruction to the environment.
• Bookchin supports animal farming which means farms feeding animals is dominating natural and supporting widlilfe on the fringes.
• Suggests radical solutions that dismiss more practical options that cost more.

Lecture 7: Ecological Restoration

• Ecological restoration is part of the ACES 1103 course.
• The world view of the course considers the environmental values of plants, mountains, humans, animals, rivers, and watersheds.

Ecological restoration

• To understand the significance of ecological restoration, we need to have some idea of what the restoration is especially ecologically, socially, politically, and philosophically.
• Defining that is complex and controversial.
• The Society for Ecological Restoration, the main professional organization for restoration ecologists and practitioners, revised the definition since the founding in 1987.
• Ecological restoration is the process of intentionally altering the specific ecosystem with its structure, function, diversity and dynamics to historic or defined.
• In the 2000's Ecological restoration is the aiding of the recovery of degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems. ecosystem recovery is the restoration of internal processes with factors contributing it.
• Identifying controllable causes contribute to aiding, sometimes removing degrading agents like roads, dams, cows, or resource extraction.
• Reintroducing nature or natural fire/floods helps the ecosystem's function.
• Give assistance with our minimal knowledge of how the ecosystems function.
• Degrading agents gives more natural work.

What Are Restoration Goals and Objectives?

• Restoration goals can be achieved by the condition that describes a more clear future.
• The scale of restoration provides understanding with ecosystem process and concepts such as ecology, natural disturbances and range.
• Considering healing processes for your site will ensure your restoration. Restoration objectives need explicit scale and time-frame and to measure progress with goals.
• State goals for thresholds in a number.

Natural State

• Restoration evokes an ecosystem with an undisturbed state/original to the specific site as the natural one.
• Restoration rejects humans from disturbing natural sites and setting conditions prior to one to set baselines.
• Land cannot be restored but be changed completely. Restoration can bring back similar animals that were disturbed and can generate like structures.
• A pre-disturbance can loosen connection to naturalness or operate between scales and time with disturbance.
• Damaged environments by grazing seek to emulate structrues that were destroyed or were not introduced due to the domestic cattle.
• A small part can effect large stream.

Science Role

• Important in implementing goals.
• Important on the site that was already logged and composition of that can change.
• Need to know trees and plant to create conditions for it thrive.
• Historical ecologist use methods like tree record analysis, pollen, and reconstruction.
• Ecologists study animal requirements, environmental needs and interacts.
• Other scientists like hydrologist and soil help the dynamics of rivers.

Authenticity

• Traditional state needs returning, with some that cleave if the condition needs not fixate.
• Andre Clewell divides into historical and that naturally self renewed.
• The self need to organize with self process instead of requiring exact the historic.
• Others would rather follow Eric Higgs, without history than it becomes parochial. History needs to tie it.

Faking Nature?

• Robert Elliot states its fake nature which overreaches a promise.
• The miner wants to sand everything and should.
• Elliot claims restoration is the restoration thesis or a vigorous claim, since if human does it creates a lose of value.

Challenges

• Division needs human under disturbed states that are simple under model and human with that and idealized conditions.
• If it is no neat there are more former landscape with human influence with human process.
• Human impacts affect. Through change bill claims that now it would be the end.

Value

• Repair damage with new community and structure with help by damage that's claimed on different levels.

Environmental Citizenship

• Ecological restoration help for a better one with the natural world with the best ethical model, not the legal claim, with the community as their part making people follow citizen.
• One with larger natural community.
• Citizens doesn't mean their required unless those that want to fulfill and obligate bigger conception.

Restoration Critiques

• Katz and Higgs claim there ambiguous.
• There is a destruct to pull or cut.
• Show us them to show what artist say, like what the art is.

Key Questions

• Consider familiar places in need.
• How about that with one set of goal.
• Does the human nature need creating through something or no.
• If restore is of less of the original value?
• Is that just dominance of nature.