Myths to Philosophy & Pre-Socratics

• Myths were not just stories, but a "poetic storied attempt to understand the universe and humanity's place in it"
• Myths explained natural phenomena and life itself
• Myths were not primarily concerned with reason, logic, or evidence
• Mythology must be taken seriously as a past attempt to understand the world
• Examples of myths include Thor and the Scandinavian mythology
• Myths explained conflicts (winter vs. fertility) and influenced practices (worship, sacrifice)

Transition to Philosophy

• Some thinkers in Greece became dissatisfied with myth and sought another medium of understanding
• This led to the rise of the Pre-Socratics, that came before Socrates
• The Pre-Socratics were generally interested in what makes up the world and how things change (e.g., ice to water, seed to plant)
• A key characteristic of the Pre-Socratics was their use of reason instead of stories to explain the world

Examples of Pre-Socratics and their ideas

• Empedocles theorized about the four elements
• Democritus proposed the idea of the atom as an indivisible particle
• Thucydides explained events (like the Peloponnesian War) through human causes (politics, disagreements) rather than supernatural intervention

Importance of Socrates

• Socrates is often considered the first Western philosopher
• His way of life and character greatly influenced both ancient and modern philosophy
• His primary concern was how one lives a good life, how one lives a moral life

Socratic Method

• Socrates employed a method of inquiry, argument, and exploration of philosophy based in dialogue

"I Know That I Know Nothing"

• The story of the Oracle of Apollo declaring Socrates the wisest man illustrates his key idea
• The wisdom stemmed from the admission that he knew nothing, unlike others who falsely believed they possessed knowledge
• For Socrates, admitting one's ignorance was the beginning of wisdom

Belief in Reason

• Socrates believed that humans are fundamentally rational beings, and that reason is what makes humans unique
• He saw reason as something almost divine
• The Greek word anima was used for both soul and mind, suggesting they were not seen as entirely separate

Aim of Teaching

• Socrates believed that by making people wiser and strengthening their minds through teaching, he could help them live better, more moral lives

The Allegory of the Cave

• The prisoners represent individuals trapped in the world of sensory perception, mistaking shadows for reality
• The shadows represent the limited and distorted understanding of the world based on appearances
• The escapee represents the philosopher who attains true knowledge by ascending out of the cave
• The ascent out of the cave is a painful and difficult process of enlightenment, representing the struggle to move from ignorance to understanding
• The light of the sun represents true knowledge and the Form of the Good
• The return of the escapee to the cave highlights the difficulty and danger of trying to share truth with those who are comfortable in their ignorance; they may be met with disbelief, ridicule, and even violence (linking to the fate of Socrates)
• The allegory illustrates humanity's potential "fishbowl" of limited perspectives

Greek Fatalism

• Fatalism was a prevalent religious belief among the ancient Greeks, especially before Socrates
• Fatalism is the belief that everything is predestined, and your entire life was written before you were born
• The Three Fates spinning the threads of life symbolize this belief
• There is no free will in this view; the only response is to willingly submit to fate and find peace within acceptance
• The saying by Solon: "Call no man happy who is not yet dead" reflects a pessimistic outlook where happiness is fleeting and only death brings a final state
• The play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles illustrates the tragic story of a man who unknowingly fulfills his terrible fate despite trying to avoid it
• These plays were like religious parables, intended to provide insight into human life, with the central moral being that you cannot escape fate
• This bleak worldview might explain the Greek appreciation for beauty as something brief and the later receptiveness to Christianity

Theory of Forms

• Plato believed in a realm of Forms or Ideas that are the highest reality, more perfect and more real than the physical world that is perceived

• Physical objects participate in these Forms

• Forms represent the essential nature or quality of things

• The process of imagining or conceiving something (like a space shuttle or a perfect gingerbread man) starts with an idea or form

• Plato posited a "World of Ideas" where these Forms exist

• The idea of Forms can be seen as compatible with religious views that see creation originating from the mind of God, where these perfect "blueprints" reside

The Allegory of the Ship

• This allegory questions what makes something what it is and the nature of identity through change
• If a ship has all its wooden planks replaced one by one, does it remain the same ship?
• Plato suggests that the "shipness" or form is more important than the individual components
• This is paralleled with the human body, where every atom is replaced over time, yet you remain "you"
• The allegory highlights that there is a quality or pattern that defines identity beyond the physical matter

Triangles and Souls

• This section explores the difference between objective reality (physical world) and the subjective realm (our minds)
• Our subjective understanding is typically a representation of the objective, but imperfect
• The case of geometric shapes like triangles is different
• A perfect two-dimensional triangle with no depth or mass does not exist physically
• Any physical depiction of a triangle is a three-dimensional, imperfect representation of the ideal
• The true, perfect idea of a triangle exists purely in the mind
• Since these abstract, non-physical ideas exist, and they reside in the mind, this suggests that the mind has a non-physical aspect
• The experience of qualia, such as the subjective feeling of seeing blue or hearing musical notes, is also presented as evidence for a non-physical aspect of the mind, as these experiences themselves are not physical

Plato's Universals and Virtues

• Plato taught the existence of universals: the Good, the True, and the Beautiful
• These are seen as fundamental aspects of the mind and traditionally the three actions of the soul
• Each universal is associated with a part of the person and a corresponding virtue
• The True (associated with the head/intellect) aspires to Wisdom (right reason)
• The Good (associated with the heart/will) aspires to Courage (balanced will)
• The Beautiful (associated with the body/gut) aspires to Temperance (balance, moderation)
• Early Christians saw parallels between these universals and the roles of Christ as Priest (Good), Prophet (True), and King (Beautiful)

Introduction to Aristotle

• Aristotle represents a significant departure in philosophical approach with distinct points from Plato
• While Plato focused on ideals and abstract notions, Aristotle was more interested in the practical and the physical sciences
• Aristotle was a proponent of categorization and is considered the father of modern logic and science
• Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great, which fostered a respect for learning
• He later founded in Athens, the Lyceum, which focused on observation and classification
• Aristotle's scientific method involved logic, evidence, and systematic explanation, although his conclusions were sometimes incorrect due to limited data (e.g., his theory of why rocks fall)
• His approach to understanding the world was "from the ground up", through observation of particulars, contrasting with Plato's approach "from the sky" of ideals

Happiness (Eudaimonia)

• Aristotle believed that the ultimate aim of human life is happiness, which is often translated as flourishing or living well (eudaimonia)
• This is not simply a state of contentment but a more active and fulfilling way of being
• The question of whether happiness is subjective or objective was raised

Virtue and the Golden Mean

• Virtue for Aristotle involves expressing the best version of oneself moment to moment
• It is not enough to do the right thing once: virtue requires ethos or habit, consistent practice over time
• Achieving virtue is like an ongoing training and competition
• Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean suggests that virtue lies in finding a balance between excess and deficiency in our actions and feelings

St. Paul in Athens

• St. Paul's visit to the Areopagus in Athens marks a significant meeting point between early Christianity and Greek philosophy
• Paul recognized the Greeks' existing awareness of a "to an unknown god", using this as a starting point to proclaim the Christian God
• This suggests that early Christian thinkers saw some overlap or partial truth in Greek philosophical thought
• The concept of Logos in the Gospel of John (the Word being with God and being God) resonates with Greek philosophical ideas that Plato would have understood

St. Augustine

• St. Augustine of Hippo is a highly influential figure in Christian theology who lived during the decline of the Roman Empire
• He played a crucial role in integrating aspects of Greek philosophy (particularly Platonism) with Christian doctrine
• Augustine addressed the question of what to do with pagan philosophy, arguing that God is the author of all truth
• Therefore, any truth found in Greek philosophy should be embraced, not rejected, simply because it originated from non-Christians
• Augustine's understanding of evil as a privation (a lack of good, not a substance in itself) contrasts with the idea of evil as a substantial entity
• He also explored the tension between the desires of the flesh and the soul, highlighting the role of grace and human will in striving for virtue