Mycenaean Era and Greek Dark Age

Mycenaean Era (1600-1100 BC)

• Wanax was the political term for the rulers of Mycenaean city-states and a central figure of authority, which disappeared at the end of the era.
• Linear B resembles the Cretan language Linear A but has Greek origins, making it decipherable, and is syllabic with pictographs; it was mainly used for administrative record keeping and was lost with the Bronze Age.
• Alice Kober significantly advanced the deciphering of Linear B by meticulously organizing it, but died before completing the work, which Michael Ventris finished, acknowledging her contributions.
• Heinrich Schliemann searched for Troy, destroying stories and artifacts in the process, found Priam’s Horde, gave it to his wife, and believed he discovered the face of Agamemnon.

Dark Age and Colonization (1100-700 BC)

• The Greek "Dark Age" (1100-700 BC) included job and population loss, poverty, loss of language, and few developments, with the mastery of iron and a shift from illiteracy.
• The monarchy weakened during this time, moving towards oligarchy by the end, marking a significant political transition.
• Demos were country districts of villages, distinct from polis (city-states), and existed within them, originating in the Dark Age and continuing throughout Ancient Greece.
• Basileus was the Greek term for king, but during this time, they were more like paramount chiefs, passing power from father to son who had to prove their competence, with limited coercive abilities and religious and judicial power within their demos.

Archaic Age and Age of Greek Tyranny (700-480 BC)

• The Archaic Age (700-480 BC) saw a shift from a weak monarchy to oligarchy and then tyranny, with further development of ironwork, marking a recovery from the Dark Age.
• The Age of Tyrants (650-510 BC) involved the rise of tyranny across Greek city-states (excluding Sparta), leading to the creation of democracy as people generally disliked tyranny.
• Hoplites were property owners, comprising the upper 50-60% of the population, who served as farmers during farming seasons and fighters in the summer off-season, fulfilling male citizen duty.
• Phalanx was a tight formation of Hoplite warriors using large shields to cover themselves and part of the person to their left, typically eight ranks deep, and fighting with long spears.
• Oligarchy is the rule of the few, where the richest and most privileged aristocratic men make the rules.
• Tyrtaeus was a Spartan poet who articulated the importance of the polis early, which later became a crucial part of the Athenian and general Greek social structure.
• Synoecism is the unification of multiple demos into a single political entity, forming polis and city-states.
• Tyrants came to power through non-traditional means, initially not implying evil but later becoming associated with it due to many souring and becoming abusive authoritarians.
• The Cypselid Dynasty (657-582 BC) was the rule of Cypselus and his sons in Corinth, notably Periander, who was considered mad and committed violent acts, including against his own family.
• Cypselus is considered the poster child of tyranny, ruling mildly after taking Corinth due to a prophecy, despite being only half Bacchiadae and surviving an assassination attempt as a child when his mother hid him in a chest.
• Pheidon of Argos, ruling from 680-660 BC, transformed Argos from a weak monarchy into a full-blown tyranny.
• The Battle of Hysiae (ca 669 BC) involved Pheidon of Argos leading the Argives to a significant victory over Sparta, possibly showcasing the first example of hoplite warfare.

Sparta

• Lycurgus is credited with the vast changes to Sparta, including its militaristic society, and is honored throughout history as a figure between a god and a human.
• Eunomia refers to Sparta's state of being endowed with good laws, stable, and well-ordered.
• Politeia is the concept of citizenship, including the ideas and rights of the individual within a state.
• Perioikoi were people living around Sparta, part of the state, and eligible to be soldiers, holding privileges just below Spartans.
• Helots lived around Sparta, viewed as serfs tied to the land between freemen and slaves, required to give half their produce to Spartan masters.
• The Great Rhetra (ca. 650 BC?) is the great law of Sparta, often attributed to Lycurgus, outlining the double kingship, the gerousia, and the apella.
• The Gerousia was a council of 28 elders (plus the two dual basilei) elected by the assembly, required to be 60 years old, serving for life, and setting the city's agenda.
• Probouleutic Function is the setting of the agenda for the larger council, effectively choosing the laws for the people to vote on, and the Gerousia served as the highest law court, even able to prosecute kings.
• The Apella was a citizen assembly of adult males (full Spartiates) with sovereign legislative powers to enact laws (voting on proposals from the gerousia), though with limited practical power.
• The Ephors were five officials elected annually by the apella, serving non-consecutive terms, checking royal power and overseeing the apella and Gerousia, with the power to punish any citizen, but not part of the Great Rhetra.
• Homoioi refers to Spartan male citizens, regardless of age.
• The Agoge was a 14-year boot camp starting at age 6, emphasizing brutal discipline, basic literacy, and fighting skills, teaching obedience, and led by older boys (excluding basilei).
• Syssition was a mess system of communal dining with 15 members each, joined at age 20 upon completing the agoge, necessary for full Spartan citizenship, requiring a certain food contribution, and involving communal barracks living until age 30, when marriage was permitted.

Reforms of Solon

• Cylon, an Olympian winner, failed in his attempt to become tyrant of Athens in 632 BC through a coup taking over the Acropolis and was killed by the Alcmaeonidae.
• The Alcmaeonids, the family of Megacles, murdered Cylon near a religious site, resulting in a curse and exile from Athens, which haunted them for centuries.
• Solon (ca 640-560 BC), a member of the eupatridai but relatively poor, was sought out as a fair mediator in Athens, and his poetry allowed his works and words to be remembered by figures like Plutarch.
• Hektemoroi were Athenian landowning men who had to pay ⅙ of their produce to the aristocrats.
• The Areopagus was a council composed of former archons, acting as an advisory council for the city magistrate.

Census Classes

• Pentakosiomedimnoi: 500 Measure Men
• Hippeis: 300 Measure Men, “horsemen”
• Zeugitai: 200 Measure Men, “yoke men”
• Thetes: Below 200 Measure Men, “bondsmen/serfs”
• Stasis: Stasis means civil conflict within a city-state or polis, marked by opposition between citizens or groups over the city's constitution, social issues, or economic problems.

Peisistratid Dynasty and Reforms of Cleisthenes

• The Peisistratid Dynasty (560-510 BC) greatly supported art and religion with a focus on economy and agriculture
• Peisistratus (560-527 BC), a member of the eupatridai, was the tyrant of Athens from 560-527 BC, focused on commerce and agriculture, maintaining Solon’s laws while installing his family and friends in positions of power.
• Hippias (527-510 BC) ruled more severely than his father.
• Hipparchus, the second son of Peisistratus, was killed by Harmodius and Aristogiton for insulting Harmodius’ sister.
• Harmodius and Aristogiton assassinated Hipparchus in 514 BC after Hipparchus insulted Harmodius' sister, leading them to be celebrated as symbols against tyranny.
• Paidika were the younger lovers or students in homosexual tutoring-based relationships, with erastes serving as their mentors and teachers.
• Cleisthenes, an Alcmaeonid, gained Athenian support over Isagoras through his charm and democratic approach by turning to the people who elected him.
• The Boule of 500 consisted of 500 people elected from the Ekklesia, serving one-year terms with a lifetime limit of two terms, with 50 members from each of the 10 tribes, acting as a governing body responsible for decision-making.
• The Ekklesia was an assembly of male citizens that could now debate and send legislation back to the Boule for amendment under Cleisthenes.
• The 10 strategoi were generals, one from each tribe, elected annually, who could be reelected as much as the people wished, making them influential due to their potential longevity in the position.
• Cleisthenes divided the three areas (city, shore, plains) into 10 trittyes, each divided into demes, with each tribe having a tritty (area within the three different types of land) and aristocrats losing power.
• Isonomia is equality before the law, used to refer to both Harmodius and Aristogiton and later Cleisthenes.

Persian Empire and Ionian Revolt

• The Cyrus Cylinder (ca 539 BC) is a clay cylinder inscribed with a script that recorded the conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, announcing respect for the traditions customs and religions of all people.
• Cyrus the Great (539-530 BC) was the founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, who conquered the Medes and captured Babylon, implementing lenient and tolerant policies towards many populations.
• The Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC) was a revolt by Ionians against Persia, which led to the Persian War

Marathon

• Darius I wanted to punish Athens and Eretria for their roles in the Ionian Revolt.
• The Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE was a conflict between Athens and the Persian Empire, led by King Darius I, where the outnumbered Athenians, under Miltiades, defeated the Persians, preventing their expansion into Greece and boosting Athenian morale.
• Miltiades was an opportunistic Athenian general who adapted to tyrants and democracy and knew the inner workings of the Persian army.
• Callimachus was the war archon for Athens who was killed at the Battle of Marathon and honored by Athens afterward with a statue.
• Choris Hippeis ("the cavalry are apart") could indicate fighting without cavalry support, a disadvantage neutralized by terrain and Greek strategy at the Battle of Marathon.
• The Stoa Poikile, or "Painted Porch," was a celebrated portico in Athens known for its artistic decoration and importance in Athenian intellectual life, and it celebrated the Greek Victory over the Persians.

Xerxes Invasion

• Xerxes, Darius’ son and successor, initially disinterested in war with Greece, was persuaded to attack, and he was known for excessive awards and punishments, and respect for local tradition.
• Themistocles was the Athenian archon from 493-2 BC who advocated for building a fleet, increasing the number of ships from 20 to 200, primarily to defend against the Persians, using trickery to achieve what he believed was best for Greece.
• The Hellenic League was an alliance of Greek city-states formed in the early 5th century BCE, led by Athens and Sparta, to unite against the Persian Empire, playing a key role in the defense of Greece during the Second Persian War, including battles such as Thermopylae and Salamis.
• Medizer means "to become Persian" or "to support the Persians") referred to a Greek city-state, ruler, or individual who sided with or supported the Persian Empire during the Greco-Persian Wars, and was viewed as traitors.
• The Battle of Artemisium was a key naval engagement in 480 BCE, concurrent with Thermopylae, strategically chosen to protect the Greek mainland from the Persian fleet, resulting in no decisive winner.
• At Thermopylae, the Spartans, led by Leonidas, fought bravely against a much larger Persian force, including Xerxes’ “Immortals”, shocking Xerxes with their refusal to retreat despite the odds.
• Leonidas was a respected Spartan leader who led the Battle of Thermopylae, allowing some to leave so they would not be seen as deserters, sacrificing himself in the battle.
• 700 Thespians, soldiers from fought at the Battle of Thermopylae.
• "Decree of Themistocles" was found in 1959. A carving on some clay thing that stated what he planned to do with the fleet against Xerxes, said to be from ca 480 BC but with the writing and the place found (Troizen, which is where the Athenians fled to), it seems like it was actually from around 300 years later.
• The Battle of Salamis resulted in a Greek victory despite being outnumbered, with the Greeks ramming ships in the narrow straits, after Themistocles tricked the Persians into fighting there.
• Pausanias was put in as temporary king after Leonidas, but became harsh and was pushed out.
• Mardonius was A Persian commander who was killed by a missile, which deeply disheartens the Persians
• The Battle of Plataea ended with a Greek victory.

Aftermath of the Persian Invasion

• The Pentekontaetia (479-431 BC) was the 50-year period between the end of the Persian Wars and the beginning of the Peloponnesian War.
• The Delian League was formed in 477 BC to contain Persia and gather riches, including many Greek nations and city-states, led by Athens, and centered on Delos to keep the treasury, but it eventually transformed into the Athenian Empire.
• Cimon, son of Miltiades, was ostracized for being pro-Spartan and persuading the Athenians to help the Spartans in the Mt. Ithome Revolt, for which he was held responsible when it failed.
• Cleurchy was a type of Athenian settlement involving the conquest of land (ex. Scyros in 475 BC) and the settlement of Athenian citizens.
• Ostracism was thought to have been invented to prevent the emergence of a tyrant.
• The Battle of Eurymedon was a significant victory for the Delian League, led by Cimon, against the Persians, which greatly strengthened the Delian League.
• The Mt. Ithome Revolt was a helot revolt against the Spartans, who requested Athenian help.