30 Questions
What is the primary reason why plants with bigger seeds may find themselves without dispersers?
Because larger animals are often more vulnerable
What is the impact on damselfish when cleaner fish consume more mucus and scales?
Their infection resistance decreases
What is the result of the loss of large seed dispersers on local plant neighbourhoods?
Smaller effective population sizes
What is the average change in flowering times over the past 3 decades?
26 days earlier
What is the primary reason for the reduction of seed dispersal distances?
Human-driven defaunation
What is the role of Gallotia lizards in the ecosystem?
Seed dispersal
What is the relationship between the size of seeds and the size of animals that disperse them?
Large seeds require large animals for dispersal
What is the outcome when one organism stops providing benefits in a mutualistic relationship?
The other organism stops providing benefits as well
What do mucus and scales provide to damselfish?
Infection resistance
What did the study on wild onion plants reveal about their relationship with fungi?
Plants can discriminate between different fungi
What is the primary benefit that ants receive from aphids in their mutualistic relationship?
A source of food rich in carbohydrates
What is the characteristic of endomycorrhizal fungi that allows them to form a mutualistic relationship with plants?
Hyphae threads that extend far out into the soil and penetrate root cells
What is the estimated time period during which the mutualism between plants and mycorrhizal fungi first evolved?
More than 450 million years ago
What is the primary benefit that plants receive from mycorrhizal fungi in their mutualistic relationship?
Soil minerals and water
What type of mutualist is an aphid that interacts with a single species of ant?
Specialist
What is the term for a mutualistic relationship in which two species provide fitness benefits to each other but the interaction is not critical to the persistence of either species?
Facultative mutualism
What is the estimated number of species of mycorrhizae involved in mutualistic relationships with plants?
More than 6,000 species
What is the primary benefit that plants provide to mycorrhizal fungi in their mutualistic relationship?
Sugars from photosynthesis
Why was the mutualism between plants and mycorrhizal fungi likely necessary for plants to adapt to land?
Because it was necessary for plants to survive in a new environment
What is the term for a mutualistic relationship in which two species provide fitness benefits to each other and require each other to persist?
Obligate mutualism
What is the primary function of Rhizobium bacteria in mutualistic relationships with legumes?
To convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
What is the benefit of the relationship between the Yao hunters and the greater honeyguide birds?
The hunters get honey and the birds get larvae and wax
What is the result of removing ants from the whistling thorn acacia trees?
An increase in the number of herbivorous insects feeding on the trees
What is the term used to describe the study of the network of interactions between species in pollination?
Pollination network
What is the function of the antibacterial compounds produced by ants in the whistling thorn acacia trees?
To prevent infection to the plant
What is the role of the blue-tailed day-gecko in the ecosystem of Mauritius?
Pollinator and seed disperser of the Rousseau simplex plant
What is the characteristic of ectomycorrhizal fungi that distinguishes them from other fungi?
They surround plant roots and enter between root cells
What is the benefit of the relationship between the whistling thorn acacia and the ants?
The acacia gets protection from herbivores and the ants get food and shelter
What is the term used to describe the nodes in a pollination network?
Species
What is the significance of studying pollination networks?
To understand the extent of redundancy and complementarity of pollination interactions in ecosystems
Study Notes
Mutualism
- A mutualism is a positive interaction between two species where both receive benefits.
- Mutualists can be generalists (interacting with many species) or specialists (interacting with one or a few species).
Types of Mutualists
- Obligate mutualists: two species that provide fitness benefits to each other and require each other to persist.
- Facultative mutualists: two species that provide fitness benefits to each other, but the interaction is not critical to the persistence of either species.
Examples of Mutualisms
- Aphids and ants: aphids produce a carbohydrate-rich droplet consumed by ants, and ants protect aphids from predators.
- Mycorrhizal fungi and plants: fungi provide plants with soil minerals and water, and plants provide fungi with sugars from photosynthesis.
- Legumes and Rhizobium bacteria: legumes provide bacteria with photosynthesis products, and bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia usable by plants.
- Humans and greater honeyguide birds: humans follow honeyguides to locate beehives, and honeyguides consume bee larvae and wax.
Mycorrhizal Fungi
- Endomycorrhizal fungi: surround plant roots, extend far into soil, and penetrate root cells, providing essential nutrients to plants.
- Ectomycorrhizal fungi: surround plant roots, enter between root cells, and provide nutrients to plants, often found in relationships with trees and shrubs.
Mutualisms in Ecosystems
- Mutualistic interactions between plants and bacteria convert unusable minerals into forms usable by plants.
- Whistling thorn acacia and ants: ants occupy acacia's hollow spine base, providing protection against herbivores and spreading antibacterial compounds.
Pollination
- Many plants rely on animals for pollination, including insects, mammals, and birds.
- The blue-tailed day-gecko is the sole pollinator and seed disperser of the endangered Rousseau simplex plant.
Networks of Interactions
- Networks can describe which species interact with which, with nodes representing species and links representing interactions.
- Networks can reveal redundancy and complementarity of interactions in ecosystems and can be used to study changes to communities if one species is lost.
Seed Dispersal
- Many species disperse seeds of many plants, with a size relationship between animal and seed size.
- Losing animals, especially larger ones, can lead to the extinction of plants that depend on them for dispersal.
Importance of Mutualisms
- Mutualisms can be crucial for the survival of species, especially in certain environments.
- The loss of mutualisms can have cascading effects on ecosystems.
Understand the concept of mutualism, a positive interaction between two species, and its types, including obligate and facultative mutualists.
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