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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of ciliated epithelium in the respiratory tract?

To transport oxygen to the alveoli

To absorb oxygen into the bloodstream

To produce mucus for enhanced gas exchange

To trap and expel particles and pathogens (correct)

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli typically around?

40 mmHg

60 mmHg

160 mmHg

100 mmHg (correct)

Which part of the urinary system is primarily responsible for storing urine?

Kidneys

Ureters

Urethra

Bladder (correct)

In the loop of Henle, which limb is permeable to water but impermeable to electrolytes?

Descending limb Signup and view all the answers

What critical function is performed by the alveoli in the respiratory system?

Gas exchange between air and blood Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of thyroxine in the body?

It regulates oxygen consumption and heat production. Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is released in a higher percentage by the thyroid gland?

T4 (thyroxine) Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the adrenal glands during the fight or flight response?

To release hormones that increase heart rate and glucose availability. Signup and view all the answers

How does the hypothalamus affect the pituitary gland?

By producing hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of pituitary hormones. Signup and view all the answers

What does T4 (thyroxine) get converted into in the body?

T3 (triiodothyronine) Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological process is NOT influenced by thyroxine?

Digestion of carbohydrates Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone released from the hypothalamus stimulates the thyroid gland?

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) Signup and view all the answers

What immediate action does norepinephrine perform during the fight or flight response?

It dilates airways. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following functions serves to mobilize energy stores during stress?

Increasing glucose availability. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of testosterone in males?

Regulation of libido and male sexual characteristics Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone inhibits the release of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)?

Inhibin Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of Oxytocin produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

Stimulates uterine contractions Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone primarily prepares the female body for pregnancy by thickening the uterine lining?

Progesterone Signup and view all the answers

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is responsible for producing which of the following hormones?

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Signup and view all the answers

How does thyroid hormone thyroxin (T4) mainly contribute to the body?

Regulates metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Inhibin A is produced by which of the following?

Females Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of cortisol in the body?

Regulation of stress response, metabolism, and immune function Signup and view all the answers

What effect does decreased cardiac output have on blood pressure?

Leads to lower blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characterizes negative feedback in hormonal regulation?

Reduces hormone release to maintain balance Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of thyroid hormones like thyroxine?

Regulating metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about blood types is correct?

Type O blood has no A or B antigens, making it a universal donor Signup and view all the answers

What might occur if the heart's pumping is inefficient?

Fluid accumulation leading to pulmonary congestion Signup and view all the answers

What role do amine hormones play in the body?

Regulate metabolism, stress, and sleep-wake cycle Signup and view all the answers

What compensatory mechanism might the body activate in response to low cardiac output?

Increased heart rate or vasoconstriction Signup and view all the answers

How does positive feedback function in hormonal mechanisms?

Promotes hormonal release to intensify responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of fluid back-up due to heart pumping failure?

Pulmonary congestion and potential edema Signup and view all the answers

Which type of blood can a type AB individual receive without any risk of hemolytic reactions?

Any blood type Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of monocytes during a bacterial infection?

They differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of white blood cell is the first to respond to bacterial infections?

Neutrophils Signup and view all the answers

Rh-negative individuals are limited to receiving which type of blood?

Only Rh-negative blood Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about Eosinophils is correct?

They destroy parasites and assist with allergic responses. Signup and view all the answers

What might a low red blood cell (RBC) count indicate?

Potential anemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of lymphocytes in the immune response?

Producing antibodies and regulating immune responses Signup and view all the answers

Which group of blood types is compatible with type A individuals?

A and O Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of basophils in the immune response?

Generating allergic responses Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to a low RBC count in an individual?

Nutritional deficiencies and chronic diseases Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Muscular System

Three types of muscles: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal
Cardiac muscle pumps blood through the circulatory system via rhythmic contractions.
Smooth muscle controls involuntary movements (e.g., digestion, blood flow, respiration).
Skeletal muscle enables body movement, posture, and produces heat.
Blood supply is crucial for muscle function; it provides oxygen and nutrients for ATP production and removes waste (like lactic acid).
Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, binding to troponin to initiate muscle contraction by allowing myosin to interact with actin.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) provides the energy for muscle contraction and relaxation.
Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter initiating muscle action potentials at the neuromuscular junction.
Enzymes like acetylcholinesterase break down ACh, while myosin ATPase facilitates cross-bridge cycling to terminate contraction.
Muscle tone refers to the continuous, passive partial contraction of muscles, maintaining posture and readiness for action.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores and releases calcium ions, regulating intracellular calcium for proper contraction/relaxation cycles.
Muscle strength can be increased through resistance training (e.g., weightlifting, bodyweight exercises), stimulating muscle hypertrophy (growth), and progressive overload (gradually increasing resistance).

Nervous System

Comprised of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Controls and coordinates bodily actions through electrical signals.
Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
Brain: controls thought, learning, movement, and feelings.
Spinal cord: transmits messages between the brain and nerves.
Parts of the Brain:
- Cerebrum: interprets sensory information, regulates emotions, reasoning and learning.
- Cerebellum: maintains balance, posture, and coordination of fine motor skills.
- Brainstem: connects cerebrum/cerebellum to spinal cord; regulates automatic functions.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves branching from the CNS
Somatic nervous system: controls voluntary movements.
Autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Digestive System

Functions of the pancreas and liver are crucial in regulating blood sugar levels (insulin/glucagon).
Four main stages of digestion (Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination)
Stomach: Chemically/mechanically digests food and stores it temporarily.
Small intestine: completes digestion and absorbs nutrients.
Large intestine: absorbs water and electrolytes, forms feces (elimination).
Enzymes, hormones (e.g., saliva's amylase, gastric juices' pepsin, pancreatic enzymes, bile) play essential roles in digestion, absorption, and nutrient breakdown.
Stomach, small intestine, and large intestine have different functionalities and mechanisms to digest food.
Liver and gallbladder are essential for bile production to digest fats.
Mouth begins mechanical digestion through chewing (mastication).
Processes like emulsification and fermentation take place throughout the digestive tract.

Endocrine System

Hypothalamus: a part of your brain that acts as a coordinating center for maintaining homeostasis by influencing the autonomic nervous system or by regulating hormones.
Pituitary gland: "master gland," controls functions like growth and reproduction
Pineal gland: regulates sleep-wake cycles (secretes melatonin).
Thyroid gland: regulates metabolism.
Parathyroid gland: controls calcium levels.
Adrenal glands: regulate response to stress; produce hormones like cortisol and adrenaline.
Pancreas: secretes insulin or glucagon to regulate glucose levels in the blood.
Gonads (ovaries/testes): produce sex hormones.

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