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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of ciliated epithelium in the respiratory tract?

  • To transport oxygen to the alveoli
  • To absorb oxygen into the bloodstream
  • To produce mucus for enhanced gas exchange
  • To trap and expel particles and pathogens (correct)

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli typically around?

  • 40 mmHg
  • 60 mmHg
  • 160 mmHg
  • 100 mmHg (correct)

Which part of the urinary system is primarily responsible for storing urine?

  • Kidneys
  • Ureters
  • Urethra
  • Bladder (correct)

In the loop of Henle, which limb is permeable to water but impermeable to electrolytes?

<p>Descending limb (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical function is performed by the alveoli in the respiratory system?

<p>Gas exchange between air and blood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of thyroxine in the body?

<p>It regulates oxygen consumption and heat production. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is released in a higher percentage by the thyroid gland?

<p>T4 (thyroxine) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the adrenal glands during the fight or flight response?

<p>To release hormones that increase heart rate and glucose availability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the hypothalamus affect the pituitary gland?

<p>By producing hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of pituitary hormones. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does T4 (thyroxine) get converted into in the body?

<p>T3 (triiodothyronine) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological process is NOT influenced by thyroxine?

<p>Digestion of carbohydrates (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone released from the hypothalamus stimulates the thyroid gland?

<p>Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What immediate action does norepinephrine perform during the fight or flight response?

<p>It dilates airways. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following functions serves to mobilize energy stores during stress?

<p>Increasing glucose availability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of testosterone in males?

<p>Regulation of libido and male sexual characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone inhibits the release of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)?

<p>Inhibin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of Oxytocin produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

<p>Stimulates uterine contractions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone primarily prepares the female body for pregnancy by thickening the uterine lining?

<p>Progesterone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is responsible for producing which of the following hormones?

<p>Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does thyroid hormone thyroxin (T4) mainly contribute to the body?

<p>Regulates metabolism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Inhibin A is produced by which of the following?

<p>Females (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of cortisol in the body?

<p>Regulation of stress response, metabolism, and immune function (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does decreased cardiac output have on blood pressure?

<p>Leads to lower blood pressure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characterizes negative feedback in hormonal regulation?

<p>Reduces hormone release to maintain balance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of thyroid hormones like thyroxine?

<p>Regulating metabolism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about blood types is correct?

<p>Type O blood has no A or B antigens, making it a universal donor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might occur if the heart's pumping is inefficient?

<p>Fluid accumulation leading to pulmonary congestion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do amine hormones play in the body?

<p>Regulate metabolism, stress, and sleep-wake cycle (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What compensatory mechanism might the body activate in response to low cardiac output?

<p>Increased heart rate or vasoconstriction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does positive feedback function in hormonal mechanisms?

<p>Promotes hormonal release to intensify responses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of fluid back-up due to heart pumping failure?

<p>Pulmonary congestion and potential edema (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of blood can a type AB individual receive without any risk of hemolytic reactions?

<p>Any blood type (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of monocytes during a bacterial infection?

<p>They differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of white blood cell is the first to respond to bacterial infections?

<p>Neutrophils (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rh-negative individuals are limited to receiving which type of blood?

<p>Only Rh-negative blood (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about Eosinophils is correct?

<p>They destroy parasites and assist with allergic responses. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might a low red blood cell (RBC) count indicate?

<p>Potential anemia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of lymphocytes in the immune response?

<p>Producing antibodies and regulating immune responses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of blood types is compatible with type A individuals?

<p>A and O (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of basophils in the immune response?

<p>Generating allergic responses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to a low RBC count in an individual?

<p>Nutritional deficiencies and chronic diseases (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Ciliated Epithelium

A type of tissue lining the trachea and bronchi, responsible for trapping and expelling particles and pathogens using cilia, tiny hair-like structures.

Goblet cells

Specialized cells within the respiratory lining that secrete mucus, which traps debris and pathogens, keeping the airways clean and moist.

Smooth muscle in respiratory tract

Muscle surrounding the bronchi and bronchioles allowing for regulation of airflow, tightening for bronchoconstriction (narrowing) and relaxing for bronchodilation (widening).

Alveoli: Function

The primary site of gas exchange in the lungs, where oxygen from inhaled air passes into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide from the blood is released into the air.

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Henle's Loop: Descending Limb

The descending limb of the loop of Henle in the kidney is permeable to water, allowing water to move out of the filtrate and into the surrounding tissue, concentrating the filtrate.

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Gonads

The reproductive organs in the body that produce gametes (sperm and eggs) and hormones. In males, it's called the testes, and in females, it's called the ovaries.

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Testosterone

A hormone produced by the testes in males. It's responsible for male sexual characteristics like muscle growth, deep voice, and sex drive.

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Inhibin

A hormone that helps regulate the production of other hormones involved in reproduction. It's produced by both males and females.

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Estrogen

A hormone primarily produced by the ovaries in females. It's responsible for female sexual characteristics like breast development and the menstrual cycle.

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Progesterone

A hormone primarily produced by the ovaries in females. It prepares the body for pregnancy by thickening the lining of the uterus.

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Anterior Pituitary Lobe

The front section of the pituitary gland. It produces hormones like growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and hormones that control reproduction.

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Thyroxin (T4)

A hormone produced by the thyroid gland that regulates metabolism in the body.

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Type AB Blood

Individuals with Type AB blood have both A and B antigens on their red blood cells. They do not have anti-A or anti-B antibodies in their plasma, making them universal recipients.

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Type A Blood

Individuals with Type A blood have A antigens on their red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in their plasma. They can receive blood from individuals with Type A or Type O blood.

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Type B Blood

Individuals with Type B blood have B antigens on their red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in their plasma. They can receive blood from individuals with Type B or Type O blood.

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Rh-positive Blood

Individuals with Rh-positive blood have the Rh factor on their red blood cells. They can receive blood from both Rh-positive and Rh-negative individuals.

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Rh-negative Blood

Individuals with Rh-negative blood lack the Rh factor on their red blood cells. They can only receive blood from Rh-negative individuals.

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Crossmatching

A laboratory procedure performed before blood transfusions to ensure compatibility between donor and recipient blood. It involves mixing samples to check for reactions, minimizing hemolytic reactions.

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Neutrophils

White blood cells that are the first responders to bacterial infections. They engulf and destroy bacteria through phagocytosis.

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Monocytes

White blood cells that differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells. They phagocytose pathogens and present antigens to T cells.

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T cells

Lymphocytes that regulate the immune response and directly kill infected cells.

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B cells

Lymphocytes that produce antibodies that target specific bacteria for destruction.

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Lipid-soluble hormones

Hormones that can pass through cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors.

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Amines (Amino Acid Derivatives)

Hormones derived from amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.

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Negative Feedback Mechanism

The common feedback mechanism that reduces hormone release once a certain level is reached, maintaining balance and preventing hormone excess.

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Positive Feedback Mechanism

A less common mechanism that amplifies hormone release to strengthen responses. It's often used to support processes like labor or blood clotting.

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Decreased Cardiac Output

This occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood effectively, leading to lower blood pressure.

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Compensatory mechanisms

The body's attempts to maintain blood pressure when cardiac output is low, such as increasing heart rate or constricting blood vessels. These mechanisms may lead to complications over time if not managed.

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Fluid Accumulation

A complication of heart failure that can lead to pulmonary congestion (fluid in the lungs) or edema (swelling in other parts of the body).

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Blood Transfusion Compatibility

Matching blood types to prevent adverse reactions. It's critical to consider ABO and Rh groups.

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Thyroid Gland: Function

The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, affecting energy usage, growth, and development. It controls the rate at which cells consume oxygen and produce heat.

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Thyroid Hormones: T4 & T3

The thyroid gland produces two main hormones: T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine). T4 is an inactive form that converts to active T3 in the body's tissues, both regulating metabolism.

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Fight or Flight Response: Adrenal Glands

During stress, adrenal glands release hormones like adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine. These hormones prepare the body for 'fight or flight' by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy stores.

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Fight or Flight Response: Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system acts as a 'control center' for the fight-or-flight response, activating adrenal gland hormone release and triggering rapid, coordinated actions to handle stressors.

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Hypothalamus: Role in Hormone Regulation

The hypothalamus is a brain region that controls hormone production by releasing and inhibiting hormones that act on the pituitary gland.

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Pituitary Gland: Function

The pituitary gland, directed by the hypothalamus, releases hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

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Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together in a coordinated system called the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, regulating hormone production throughout the body, ensuring homeostasis and responding to changes.

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Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)

TRH is a hormone released by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), ultimately leading to thyroxine production by the thyroid gland.

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Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)

CRH is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary gland to release ACTH, which in turn regulates cortisol production in the adrenal glands.

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Study Notes

Muscular System

  • Three types of muscles: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal
  • Cardiac muscle pumps blood through the circulatory system via rhythmic contractions.
  • Smooth muscle controls involuntary movements (e.g., digestion, blood flow, respiration).
  • Skeletal muscle enables body movement, posture, and produces heat.
  • Blood supply is crucial for muscle function; it provides oxygen and nutrients for ATP production and removes waste (like lactic acid).
  • Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, binding to troponin to initiate muscle contraction by allowing myosin to interact with actin.
  • Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) provides the energy for muscle contraction and relaxation.
  • Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter initiating muscle action potentials at the neuromuscular junction.
  • Enzymes like acetylcholinesterase break down ACh, while myosin ATPase facilitates cross-bridge cycling to terminate contraction.
  • Muscle tone refers to the continuous, passive partial contraction of muscles, maintaining posture and readiness for action.
  • The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores and releases calcium ions, regulating intracellular calcium for proper contraction/relaxation cycles.
  • Muscle strength can be increased through resistance training (e.g., weightlifting, bodyweight exercises), stimulating muscle hypertrophy (growth), and progressive overload (gradually increasing resistance).

Nervous System

  • Comprised of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
  • Controls and coordinates bodily actions through electrical signals.
  • Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
  • Brain: controls thought, learning, movement, and feelings.
  • Spinal cord: transmits messages between the brain and nerves.
  • Parts of the Brain:
    • Cerebrum: interprets sensory information, regulates emotions, reasoning and learning.
    • Cerebellum: maintains balance, posture, and coordination of fine motor skills.
    • Brainstem: connects cerebrum/cerebellum to spinal cord; regulates automatic functions.
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves branching from the CNS
  • Somatic nervous system: controls voluntary movements.
  • Autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Digestive System

  • Functions of the pancreas and liver are crucial in regulating blood sugar levels (insulin/glucagon).
  • Four main stages of digestion (Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination)
  • Stomach: Chemically/mechanically digests food and stores it temporarily.
  • Small intestine: completes digestion and absorbs nutrients.
  • Large intestine: absorbs water and electrolytes, forms feces (elimination).
  • Enzymes, hormones (e.g., saliva's amylase, gastric juices' pepsin, pancreatic enzymes, bile) play essential roles in digestion, absorption, and nutrient breakdown.
  • Stomach, small intestine, and large intestine have different functionalities and mechanisms to digest food.
  • Liver and gallbladder are essential for bile production to digest fats.
  • Mouth begins mechanical digestion through chewing (mastication).
  • Processes like emulsification and fermentation take place throughout the digestive tract.

Endocrine System

  • Hypothalamus: a part of your brain that acts as a coordinating center for maintaining homeostasis by influencing the autonomic nervous system or by regulating hormones.
  • Pituitary gland: "master gland," controls functions like growth and reproduction
  • Pineal gland: regulates sleep-wake cycles (secretes melatonin).
  • Thyroid gland: regulates metabolism.
  • Parathyroid gland: controls calcium levels.
  • Adrenal glands: regulate response to stress; produce hormones like cortisol and adrenaline.
  • Pancreas: secretes insulin or glucagon to regulate glucose levels in the blood.
  • Gonads (ovaries/testes): produce sex hormones.

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