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Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of satellite cells in muscle tissue?
What is the primary role of satellite cells in muscle tissue?
Which type of muscle architecture typically allows for longer contractions?
Which type of muscle architecture typically allows for longer contractions?
What does the term 'proximal' refer to in the context of muscle origins?
What does the term 'proximal' refer to in the context of muscle origins?
Which movement is characterized by bringing a limb toward the midline of the body?
Which movement is characterized by bringing a limb toward the midline of the body?
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What layer of connective tissue surrounds the entire muscle?
What layer of connective tissue surrounds the entire muscle?
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Which type of muscle fiber arrangement is more likely to produce greater force?
Which type of muscle fiber arrangement is more likely to produce greater force?
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From which embryonic structure do somatic muscles of limbs develop?
From which embryonic structure do somatic muscles of limbs develop?
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What is the function of connective tissue components in muscles?
What is the function of connective tissue components in muscles?
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Which mammalian structure corresponds to the left posterior cardinal vein in adults?
Which mammalian structure corresponds to the left posterior cardinal vein in adults?
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In which order of animals do posterior cardinals completely disappear anterior to the kidneys?
In which order of animals do posterior cardinals completely disappear anterior to the kidneys?
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What is the primary function of the postcava in the body?
What is the primary function of the postcava in the body?
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Which of the following animals does NOT retain any part of its embryonic abdominal stream in adults?
Which of the following animals does NOT retain any part of its embryonic abdominal stream in adults?
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Which term refers to the common cardinal veins in tetrapods?
Which term refers to the common cardinal veins in tetrapods?
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What do the paired lateral veins in early tetrapod embryos develop into during ontogeny?
What do the paired lateral veins in early tetrapod embryos develop into during ontogeny?
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Which structures connect directly to the postcava in crocodilians, birds, and mammals?
Which structures connect directly to the postcava in crocodilians, birds, and mammals?
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In which type of animals does the renal portal system receive blood from the hind limbs through a tributary?
In which type of animals does the renal portal system receive blood from the hind limbs through a tributary?
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What unique feature of crocodile hearts allows them to dive for several hours without surfacing?
What unique feature of crocodile hearts allows them to dive for several hours without surfacing?
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How do the cog teeth valves in crocodile hearts differ from the valves in other vertebrates?
How do the cog teeth valves in crocodile hearts differ from the valves in other vertebrates?
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What term describes the mechanism that allows blood to be diverted from the lungs in crocodiles?
What term describes the mechanism that allows blood to be diverted from the lungs in crocodiles?
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In what part of the crocodile's heart are the cog-teeth valves located?
In what part of the crocodile's heart are the cog-teeth valves located?
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What is the role of adrenalin in regulating blood flow in crocodiles?
What is the role of adrenalin in regulating blood flow in crocodiles?
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How do mammalian hearts differ from crocodile hearts in terms of blood supply to the lungs and body?
How do mammalian hearts differ from crocodile hearts in terms of blood supply to the lungs and body?
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What evolutionary significance do the unique valves in the crocodile heart represent?
What evolutionary significance do the unique valves in the crocodile heart represent?
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What physiological change occurs in crocodiles when they are relaxed regarding their blood flow?
What physiological change occurs in crocodiles when they are relaxed regarding their blood flow?
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What is the primary function of external respiration?
What is the primary function of external respiration?
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Which of the following is NOT classified as a primary organ for external respiration in adult vertebrates?
Which of the following is NOT classified as a primary organ for external respiration in adult vertebrates?
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Which organism is primarily associated with cutaneous respiration?
Which organism is primarily associated with cutaneous respiration?
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How many pairs of gill pouches do agnathans typically possess?
How many pairs of gill pouches do agnathans typically possess?
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What is the significance of the interbranchial septum in gills?
What is the significance of the interbranchial septum in gills?
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What is the primary function of the Foramen of Panizza in crocodilians?
What is the primary function of the Foramen of Panizza in crocodilians?
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What feature distinguishes bony fishes (teleosts) from cartilaginous fishes regarding their gills?
What feature distinguishes bony fishes (teleosts) from cartilaginous fishes regarding their gills?
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What happens to the semilunar valve in the right aorta when a crocodilian is above water?
What happens to the semilunar valve in the right aorta when a crocodilian is above water?
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What are larval external gills commonly found in?
What are larval external gills commonly found in?
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During which condition does right ventricular pressure increase due to pulmonary resistance?
During which condition does right ventricular pressure increase due to pulmonary resistance?
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What is a consequence of the semilunar valve opening in the right aorta while a crocodilian is underwater?
What is a consequence of the semilunar valve opening in the right aorta while a crocodilian is underwater?
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What is the function of swim bladders in most vertebrates?
What is the function of swim bladders in most vertebrates?
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What ensures that both aortas carry oxygenated blood when crocodilians are above water?
What ensures that both aortas carry oxygenated blood when crocodilians are above water?
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How does staying underwater longer benefit crocodilians during hunting?
How does staying underwater longer benefit crocodilians during hunting?
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What is the role of vasoconstriction in the blood vessels supplying the lungs of a crocodilian underwater?
What is the role of vasoconstriction in the blood vessels supplying the lungs of a crocodilian underwater?
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Which statement best describes the state of the crocodilian circulatory system when it is above water?
Which statement best describes the state of the crocodilian circulatory system when it is above water?
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What is the main function of the omasum in the ruminant digestive system?
What is the main function of the omasum in the ruminant digestive system?
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Which statement accurately describes the abomasum?
Which statement accurately describes the abomasum?
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How do the intestines of amphibians differ from those of mammals?
How do the intestines of amphibians differ from those of mammals?
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What role does the rumen serve in ruminant digestion?
What role does the rumen serve in ruminant digestion?
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Which characteristic of mammalian intestines is notable compared to other vertebrates?
Which characteristic of mammalian intestines is notable compared to other vertebrates?
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What is a key feature of the intestines in birds and reptiles?
What is a key feature of the intestines in birds and reptiles?
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What is the primary purpose of the intestines in vertebrates?
What is the primary purpose of the intestines in vertebrates?
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In which type of animal would you most likely find a cecum at the junction of the small and large intestines?
In which type of animal would you most likely find a cecum at the junction of the small and large intestines?
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Study Notes
Skeletal System: The Skull
- The skeleton is divided into exoskeletons and endoskeletons.
- Exoskeletons are located within the integument and can be keratinized (from epidermis) or bony (from dermis).
- Endoskeletons are deep within the body and can be bony or cartilaginous.
- The cranial skeleton includes the chondrocranium and splanchnocranium and dermatocranium.
- The postcranial skeleton includes the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
- The postcranial skeleton includes vertebral column, notochord, limbs, girdle
3 Subdivisions of the Skull
- Chondrocranium,
- Splanchnocranium,
- Dermatocranium
Structures of the Skull
- The diagram shows various parts of the skull, like supra-branchials, epibranchials, hyomandibula, sympletic, quadrate, ceratohyal, articular, palatoquadrate, palatine, etc
- The diagram demonstrates how different components of the skull develop through different evolutionary stages
- The diagrams show how the different structures of the Skull change during various developments
- Detailed diagrams of the skull from different ages
Late Devonian Lobe-Finned Fish and Amphibious Tetrapods
- The diagram shows different species of fish and amphibians that lived during the Late Devonian period.
- These animals show different adaptations to the environment (e.g., freshwater, land, etc.)
- These adaptations are crucial steps in the evolution of tetrapods.
- The diagram shows the evolutionary change from early tetrapods (aquatic) to land dwelling tetrapods
Endochondral Contributions to the Chondrocranium
- Table showing contributions of endochondral bones to the chondrocranium in different vertebrate classes (fishes, amphibians, reptiles/birds, mammals).
- Lists occipital bones, mesethmoid bone, ethmoid region, sphenoid bones, laterosphenoid, otic capsule, and perotic structures
- Data on the table demonstrates the evolutionary changes in the structure of endochondral bones and the specific endochondral contributions in those structures
Major Dermal Bones of the Skull
- Table showing major dermal bones of the skull, categorized into facial, orbital, temporal, vault, palatal, and mandibular series
- Includes the premaxilla, maxilla, nasals, lacrimal, prefrontal, postfrontal, postorbital, and jugal bones in facial series; and the intertemporal, supratemporal, tabular, squamosal and quadratojugal in temporal series
- Also includes vomer, palatine, ectopterygoid, pterygoid, parasphenoid, and coronoids
- Provides a comprehensive list of dermal bones in different areas of the skull
- The table lists the dermal bones in the skull in different series
Skull of a Chick & Human Fetus
- The diagrams show the bones or portions of bones that are developed from neural crest cells (shaded).
- The table gives acronyms for each specific bone to understand the exact parts.
Visceral Arches in Sharks, Teleosts, and Tetrapods
- Table showing the derivatives of branchial arches in sharks, teleosts, amphibians, reptiles/birds, and mammals.
- Details the various structures derived from different branchial arches with the different groupings
- Includes Meckel's cartilage, palatoquadrate, and hyomandibula and detailed structural representation across various groups of animals
- Provides comparative information across various groups of organisms
Types of Skull and Jaw Suspension
- Diagram of the different types of skull and jaw suspension in various vertebrate groups
Skull and Visceral Skeleton
- Two functionally independent cartilaginous components are derived from replacement bones (neurocranium & splanchnocranium).
- Provides a basic understanding of the skull and visceral skeleton
Neurocranium
- Protects the brain and anterior part of the spinal cord.
- Has sense organ capsules and is an embryonic adaptation
- Has four ossification centers
Sphenoid Region
- The sphenoid region consists of basisphenoid, presphenoid, and orbital and laterosphenoids
- These fuse to form a single bone in mammals
Temporal, Ethmoid & Otic regions
- Ethmoid region is anterior to the sphenoid,
- Cribriform plate and olfactory foramina
- Otic region has three bones in tetrapods (prootic, opisthotic and epiotic) which unite in birds and mammals to create the petrosal bone.
Visceral Skeleton
- Also known as the branchial region; it has different subdivisions/regions
Visceral-Cranial Derivatives
- Derived from skeletal elements from different pharyngeal arches
Dermatocranium
- Formed by membrane bone, not replacement bone.
- Has dermal bones of the skull such as the nasal bone, squamous bone, palate and mandible.
Neurocranial Elements
- The elements of the neurocranium include, cribriform, ethmoid, otic complex and temporal bone
Splanchnocranial Elements
- Contains elements including the malleus, incus and stapes and the styloid process of the hyoid
- Structures are derived from visceral arches
Visceral Arches of Man
- The visceral arches of man include the styloid processes, body of the hyoid, thyroid and cricoid structures
Middle Ear Bones
- Includes the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).
Appendicular Skeleton
- Pectoral Girdle
- Pelvic Girdle
- Appendages
- Adaptations for speed
Pectoral Girdle
- Has two sets of elements, cartilage or replacement bone, and membrane bone.
- Replacement bones include coracoid, scapula, suprascapula
- Membrane bones include clavicle, and cleithrum, supracleithrum .
- Reduction in bones over evolution
Pelvic Girdle
- No dermal elements.
- Three replacement bones (ilium, ischium, pubis)
- Triradiate pelvic girdle (alligators and dinosaurs)
Appendages
- Single unit in both fore and hind limb most medial
- Two units in fore and hind limb distal area
Ribs
- Dogfish develops dorsal ribs.
- Most teleosts develop ventral ribs.
- Tetrapods have both dorsal and ventral ribs.
- Dorsal ribs are lost; proximal rib heads enlarge.
- Two rib portions articulate with vertebrae (tuberculum and capitulum).
- Agnathans have no ribs.
- Amphibians' ribs never reach the sternum.
- Birds have flat processes extending off ribs posteriorly (unicate processes).
Adaptations for Speed
- Plantigrade (flat on the ground; primates),
- Digitigrade (elevated; carnivores),
- Unguligrade (reduction in digits; two types
- Perissodactyls, odd-toed ungulates with weight on enlarged middle digit (e.g., horse)
- Artiodactyls, even-toed ungulates with weight equally distributed on the 3rd and 4th digits(e.g., camel).
Locomotion Without Limbs
- Serpentine (lateral undulation, wave motion, minimum 3 contact points)
- Rectilinear (straight line, scutes on belly lift, costocutaneous muscles)
- Sidewinding (minimum 2 contact points, adaptation to sandy habitats)
- Concertina (minimum 2 contact points, allows snakes to move upward in a gutter)
Heterotopic Bone
- Develops by endochondral or intramembranous ossification.
- In areas subject to continual stress
- examples of Os cordis, rostral bone, os penis, os clitoridis, falciform, sesamoid, patella and pisiform
Skull and Visceral Skeleton
- Two functionally independent components (neurocranium and visceral skeleton) derived from replacement bones:
Cranial/Sphenoid/Temporal/Ethmoid/Otic/Visceral Skeletal Elements
- Detailed breakdown of various skull components, particularly for mammals and including related structures like the visceral arches
Muscle origins and Naming
- Somites are the source of somatic muscles (including the limbs).
- Lateral plate mesoderm - provides somatic muscles in the flank.
- Splanchnic mesoderm - contributes to visceral muscles
Vertebrae Grouping
- Grouped based on body region (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal).
- Amphibians are the first vertebrates to possess cervical vertebrae.
Reptile Vertebrae
- Atlas as the 1st cervical and axis as the 2nd.
- Turtle: 8 cervicals, 2 sacrals, 10 dorsals, 16-30 caudals
- Alligator: 8 cervicals, 11 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 2 sacrals, up to 40 caudals
Bird Vertebrae
- Possess atlas and axis
- 13-14 free cervicals, 4 fused thoracics, fused synsacrum, free caudals, pygostyle
Mammal Vertebrae
- Most have 7 cervicals
- 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar compose dorsal vertebrae
- Ancestral mammals had ~27 presacrals
- Sacrum is 2-5 fused vertebrae
- Caudals are variable
- Primates have 2-5 fused into coccyx
Vertebra Evolution
- Transition from crossopterygians to labyrinthodonts,
- Different types of vertebrae derive from primitive rachitomatous labyrinthodonts
- Two pleurocentra & U-shaped hypocentrum
- Hypocentrum is lost and pleurocentrum enlarges and forms centrum in modern amniotes
Phylogenic Groups
- Categorizations of various groups and subtypes that exist based on the different anatomical features and adaptations observed
Appendicular Skeleton/Axial Skeleton
- Comprehensive description of the skeletal system/subsystem
Vertebrae
- Types of centra (e.g., amphicoelous, opisthocelous, procelous, acelous)
- Evolution of centra (e.g., pleurocentra, hypocentrum).
- Grouping of vertebrae according to body region (e.g., cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal).
Locomotion Without Limbs & Adaptations for Speed
- Discussions on different adaptation strategies for movement without limbs (serpentine, rectilinear, sidewinding, concertina)
- Different adaptations for speed in different animal groups (plantigrade, digitigrade, unguligrade).
Digestive Tract
- Subdivisions of vertebrate digestive tracts (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and cloaca).
- Differences in digestive tracts related to diet (e.g., herbivores, carnivores).
Respiratory System
- Adaptations like gills, lungs, cutaneous respiration & breathing mechanisms, for various taxa
- Modification details for each taxa discussed
Urogenital System
- Embryological origins & general functions including urine excretion and osmoregulation and the merging of urinary and reproductive processes
- Development of vertebrate kidneys (pronephros, mesonephros, metanephros)
- Details of blood supply and structures
Circulatory System
- General description of vertebrate circulatory systems that include the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins and blood flow patterns among various taxa.
- Modifications to the circulatory systems in different vertebrates (lungfish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals)
- Details on the circulatory functions, modifications and adaptations for each group.
Lymphatic System
- Description and function details on lymph vessels, lymph nodes and lymph hearts.
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Description
Test your knowledge on muscle anatomy, including the roles of satellite cells and muscle architecture. This quiz covers key terms related to muscle fiber arrangements, connective tissue functions, and embryonic development of muscles. Perfect for students studying anatomy and physiology.
