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Questions and Answers
What is a key aspect when constructing a stem for a multiple choice question?
What is a key aspect when constructing a stem for a multiple choice question?
Which statement about options in multiple choice questions is correct?
Which statement about options in multiple choice questions is correct?
What should be avoided when creating distractors for a multiple choice question?
What should be avoided when creating distractors for a multiple choice question?
What characterizes a strong correct answer in a multiple choice question?
What characterizes a strong correct answer in a multiple choice question?
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What is the purpose of including additional context in the 'info' section after a question?
What is the purpose of including additional context in the 'info' section after a question?
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Study Notes
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Pupil: Constricts
- Salivary Glands: Stimulates salivation
- Heart: Slows heartbeat
- Lungs: Constricts bronchioles
- Stomach: Stimulates digestion
- Liver: Stimulates glucose release
- Intestines: Stimulates peristalsis and secretion
- Bladder: Contracts
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Pupil: Dilates
- Salivary Glands: Inhibits salivation
- Heart: Accelerates heartbeat
- Lungs: Dilates bronchioles
- Stomach: Inhibits digestion
- Liver: Stimulates glucose release
- Intestines: Inhibits peristalsis and secretion
- Bladder: Relaxes
Autonomic Nervous System Actions
| Target Organ | Sympathetic/Adrenergic | Parasympathetic/Cholinergic |
|---|---|---|
| Pupils | Dilate (mydriasis) | Constrict (miosis) |
| Lacrimal glands | Thick, viscid secretions | Thin, watery secretions |
| Salivary glands | Thick, viscid secretions | Copious, watery saliva |
| Trachea and bronchioles | Bronchodilates | Bronchoconstricts |
| Lungs | Bronchodilation | Bronchoconstriction |
| Heart | Increase HR/tachycardia | Dec HR/bradycardia |
| Blood vessels (skin) | Vasodilate | Vasoconstrict |
| Blood vessels (GIT) | Vasoconstrict | Vasodilate |
| GIT | Dec motility/constipation | Inc motility/diarrhea |
| Bladder | Relaxes | Contracts |
| Male genitalia | Ejaculation | Erection |
| Uterus | Relaxation | Contraction |
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine (NE) is the primary neurotransmitter that acts on one or more receptor sites located in effectors such as the heart, bronchioles, GI tract, urinary bladder, and ciliary muscles of the eye.
- Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Released from the adrenal medulla; another neurotransmitter that activates adrenergic receptors.
- Receptors: Adrenergic receptors (alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, beta 2, beta 3, dopamine) are located in effectors.
Autonomic Receptors and Effects
| Receptor | Typical Locations | Physiological Response |
|---|---|---|
| Alpha 1 | Postsynaptic effector cells, radial muscles, sphincters, vascular tissues (blood vessels), pilomotor muscle, prostate, urinary bladder, eyes | Increase force of heart contraction, vasoconstriction, increases blood pressure, mydriasis, decreases secretion in salivary glands, urinary bladder relaxation and urinary sphincter contraction |
| Alpha 2 | Presynaptic adrenergic nerve terminals, (postganglionic sympathetic nerve endings), platelets, lipocytes | Inhibits the release of NE; decreases gastrointestinal motility and tone; dilates blood vessels |
| Beta 1 | Postsynaptic effector cells (especially heart, juxtaglomerular cells (kidney), nephron for release of renin) | Increased chronotropic (heart rate), increased inotropic (force of contraction) and automaticity, renin release from kidney |
| Beta 2 | Postsynaptic effector cells (smooth muscles of lungs, eyes, bladder, uterus, GI smooth muscles, blood vessels, skeletal muscle, liver, heart) | Bronchodilation, gastrointestinal relaxation, uterine relaxation, glycogenolysis in liver, blood vessel vasodilation, increased glycogenolysis |
| Beta 3 | Postsynaptic effector cells (lipocytes/adipocytes, white adipose tissue (WAT), brown adipose tissue (BAT), in urinary bladder) | Lipolysis (breakdown of fat) |
| Dopamine | Renal, mesenteric, coronary, cerebral arteries | Vessels dilate, blood flow increases |
Classification of Drugs Affecting the Nervous System
- Stimulants (Psychostimulants): Increase CNS activity, enhancing dopamine and norepinephrine release. Examples: Amphetamines, caffeine, cocaine.
- Depressants: Reduce CNS activity, enhancing GABA activity. Examples: benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol.
- Opioids: Act primarily on opioid receptors to produce pain relief, mood enhancement, and euphoria. Examples: morphine, codeine, fentanyl, oxycodone.
- Hallucinogens (Psychedelics): Alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes. Examples: LSD, psilocybin, MDMA.
- Antidepressants: Affect neurotransmitters (serotonin and norepinephrine) to improve mood. Examples: SSRIs, SNRIs, tricyclic antidepressants.
- Antipsychotics: Block dopamine receptors to reduce psychotic symptoms. Examples: haloperidol, risperidone, olanzapine.
- Anxiolytics: Primarily act on GABA receptors to reduce anxiety. Examples: benzodiazepines, buspirone.
- Antiepileptics (Anticonvulsants): Stabilize neuronal membranes to prevent seizure activity. Examples: phenytoin, valproate, carbamazepine.
Cholinergic Agonists/Parasympathomimetics
-
Direct-Acting:
- Pilocarpine: Increases aqueous humor drainage, treats glaucoma and xerostomia.
-
Indirect-acting:
- Neostigmine: Inhibits acetylcholinesterase, treats myasthenia gravis and reverses anesthesia effects.
Cholinergic Antagonists/Parasympatholytics
- Atropine Sulfate: Blocks muscarinic receptors; treats bradycardia, overdose of cholinergics, etc.
- Ipratropium: Blocks muscarinic receptors in the lungs; treats COPD.
- Other Anticholinergics: Used for gastrointestinal issues and other conditions. Includes drugs like cyclopentolate, homatropine, and tropicamide.
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Description
This quiz covers essential concepts in creating effective multiple choice questions. Explore key aspects of constructing stems, formulating options, and crafting distractors. Learn how context can enhance question clarity and strengthen assessments.
