Motor Learning and Control Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What characterizes the associative stage of learning?

Large gains in performance are achieved with consistent movements.

Learners connect stimuli to motor responses and refine their performance. (correct)

Performance becomes automatic and smooth with little need for feedback.

Expert performance is attained, allowing for simultaneous higher-level cognitive activities.

In which stage do learners begin to monitor their own feedback and detect errors?

Verbal-motor stage

Cognitive stage

Associative stage (correct)

Autonomous stage

What is a characteristic of the autonomous stage of motor learning?

Increased inconsistency in performance and reliance on self-talk.

Gains in performance are large and noticeable.

Speed of movement increases while variability decreases. (correct)

Constant monitoring of performance becomes necessary.

How does performance differ from learning?

Performance is observable behavior, whereas learning represents changes in capability. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to learners' self-confidence as they progress to the autonomous stage?

Self-confidence increases along with the ability to detect errors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the motor cortex in the process of motor control?

To send signals to the spinal cord for movement Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the nervous system is responsible for processing visual information?

Visual cortex Signup and view all the answers

What are the two major types of cells in the nervous system?

Neurons and glia Signup and view all the answers

What role does the cerebellum play in motor control?

It aids in error correction Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is anatomically separated but functionally interconnected with the central nervous system?

Peripheral nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of dendrites in a neuron?

To receive inputs from other cells Signup and view all the answers

How many neurons are approximately found in the human brain?

100 billion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the somatic nervous system?

Information to/from CNS about muscle position Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the cortex, which direction does 'caudal' refer to?

Towards the tail Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes ipsilateral structures?

They are located on the same side of the body. Signup and view all the answers

What is the membrane potential of most neurons at resting state?

-70 mV Signup and view all the answers

Which plane divides the body into left and right sections?

Sagittal Plane Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'proximal' refer to?

Closer to the midline Signup and view all the answers

Which type of tissue does the autonomic nervous system primarily control?

Cardiac muscle and glands Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary ionic characteristic inside a neuron at resting potential?

High concentration of negatively charged molecules Signup and view all the answers

In the spinal cord, how is 'ventral' defined?

Towards the chest Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the number of muscle fibers innervated by a motor neuron?

Innervation ratio Signup and view all the answers

Which type of motor neuron has a larger postsynaptic potential?

Alpha motor neurons Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the depolarization of the presynaptic membrane?

Generation of action potentials Signup and view all the answers

Which option accurately describes the relationship between motor neuron size and conduction velocity?

Larger motor neurons conduct faster Signup and view all the answers

What does an EPSP in a motor neuron indicate?

Excitation of the neuron Signup and view all the answers

What primarily determines the summation of local potentials in motor neurons?

Strength of synaptic input Signup and view all the answers

Which component is involved in the generation of action potentials?

Opening of ion channels Signup and view all the answers

How does the number of muscle fibers innervated differ in various muscles?

It varies depending on the muscle Signup and view all the answers

What occurs after the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse?

Opening of ion channels Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of depolarization on the postsynaptic membrane?

It produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes inputs from multiple presynaptic neurons at once?

Spatial summation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of neurotransmitters at the postsynaptic membrane?

To facilitate synaptic transmission via ion channels. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does cocaine have on dopamine transmission?

It blocks re-uptake of dopamine. Signup and view all the answers

How can drugs affect synaptic transmission?

By interfering with the processes opening/closing ion channels. Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of neurotransmitter re-uptake?

It terminates the postsynaptic potential. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does ethanol have on GABA receptors?

It enhances GABA stimulation and prolongs channel opening. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of postsynaptic potential makes the neuron less likely to fire an action potential?

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) Signup and view all the answers

What does divergence mean in the context of neural transmission?

One neuron communicating with multiple neurons. Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for an action potential to occur at a postsynaptic neuron?

There must be a sufficient level of summation of excitatory inputs. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Motor Control

Movement is produced by complex neural networks that activate and coordinate muscles and limbs.
Motor control involves both reflexive/reactive and voluntary mechanisms.
Sensory input (afferent) is processed, followed by a motor/action response (efferent).
Simple behaviors, such as playing tennis, use multiple brain regions for visual processing, planning actions, and integrating sensory information for accurate execution. Specific areas involved include:
- Visual cortex (processing visual information)
- Premotor cortex (planning actions)
- Amygdala and hypothalamus (motivation, alertness)
- Motor cortex (generating movement commands)
- Posterior parietal cortex (integrating sensory information about surrounding environment to understand the position of the ball)
- Basal ganglia (executing a motor task)
- Cerebellum (error correction in the performance of the motor action)

Nervous System

The nervous system has central and peripheral components.
Central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes peripheral nerves and ganglia.
CNS and PNS are anatomically separate but functionally interconnected.
Continuous communication allows the body to sense and react to the environment via motor plans.
Two major cell types: neurons and glia.
Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system.
- Neurons have four main components: dendrites, cell body, axon, and terminal.
- Dendrites receive information, the cell body processes information, the axon transmits information, and terminal sends signals to other cells.

Neuron

Neurons are functionally classified into sensory, motor, and interneurons.
Sensory neurons relay information from sensory receptors to the CNS (afferent).
Motor neurons relay information from the CNS to effectors like muscles (efferent).
Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons in the CNS, facilitating complex processing and reflexive actions.
Sensory neurons provide information about the body's external environment (touch, pressure, temperature, etc) to the CNS.
Motor neurons transmit instructions from the CNS to muscles or glands, initiating actions.
Interneurons relay and process information between sensory and motor neurons for complex behaviors.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS consists of the spinal cord and brainstem.
- Spinal Cord
- Medulla
- Pons
- Midbrain
The cerebellum coordinates fine motor control and balances.
The thalamus receives sensory information and relays it to the cerebral cortex.
Cerebral hemispheres (forebrain) are involved in higher-order functions like thought, perception, and language.

Cerebral Cortex Subdivisions

The cerebral cortex is divided into lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal) with different functions.
- Frontal lobe: Responsible for movement, planning, and reasoning.
- Parietal lobe: Involved in bodily sensation, spatial processing, and integration of visual and bodily information.
- Temporal lobe: Processes auditory information, smell, taste, and visual perception.
- Occipital lobe: Primarily responsible for visual processing.

Cerebral Cortex Continued

Many areas of the cortex are involved in processing sensory information and motor commands (unimodal).
Other areas are multimodal association areas, combining diverse information into purposeful interactions, perception of movement and motivation.

Grey and White Matter

The spinal cord has grey matter (unmyelinated axons and cell bodies) on the inside and white matter (myelinated axons) on the outside.
Grey matter is involved in processing information, and white matter transmits information.
Cervical spinal cord segments have more white matter (for relaying information). Lower spinal segments in the vertebrae have less white matter.

Somatotopic Organization

The organization of the ventral horn is somatotopic, meaning adjacent parts of the body are represented by adjacent neurons.
Dorsal to ventral direction often maps from flexors to extensors.
Generally, medial to lateral goes from proximal to distal.

Brainstem

The brainstem consists of the medulla, pons, and midbrain.
The brainstem regulates critical life support systems, controls eye movements, and relays sensory and motor information between the brain and spinal cord.
Also known as a large area involved in the coordination of many fundamental bodily movements, and essential life functions like respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is the most external layer of the brain, deeply folded to increase surface area.
It is divided into gyri (bumps) and sulci (grooves) and is vital for higher-order brain functions.
Subdivisions include frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, each with unique tasks.

Summary of Brain Regions

The cerebral cortex is involved in higher-level processing of sensory and motor information.
Brainstem functions include fundamental movement interactions and life processes.
The cerebellum plays a role in motor coordination and error correction.
The basal ganglia are essential for planning and control of movement.

Action Potential

An action potential is a rapid change in membrane potential.
The action potential arises when voltage-gated ion channels open, causing a rapid influx and efflux of ions (sodium and potassium).
The action potential travels down the axon, leading to neurotransmitter release.
The propagation of the action potential is affected by myelination.

Synapse

At the synapse, neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron, transmitting information to the postsynaptic neuron.
Drugs can influence this process, either enhancing or inhibiting synaptic transmission. These actions can lead to various behavioral changes.

Postsynaptic Potentials

Postsynaptic potentials are small changes in membrane potential that summate to trigger an action potential.
They can be excitatory (depolarizing) or inhibitory (hyperpolarizing) depending on the neurotransmitter released.

Signal Summation

Signals from multiple presynaptic neurons can summate temporally or spatially to trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.

Motor Neurons and Motor Units

Motor neurons control muscle contraction.
A single motor neuron innervates one or more muscle fibers (a motor unit).
The size of the motor unit influences the precision of movements; smaller motor units support finer control in movements.
Different motor neurons are recruited in a specific manner to produce different amounts of force, in which smaller motor units are recruited first followed by larger motor units.

Sensory Receptors

Specialized structures that detect stimuli from the environment.
Types include:
- Cutaneous receptors (detect touch, pressure, temperature, pain)
- Joint receptors (detect joint position and movement)
- Muscle spindles (detect muscle length and stretch)
- Golgi tendon organs (detect muscle tension)
- Spinal reflex arc

Classification of Skills

Skills are classified by environmental predictability, organization of the task, the importance of physical vs cognitive components, and the primary muscles involved. Examples of skills are; closed and open skills.
- Closed skills are performed in stable, predictable environments (e.g., typing, playing a piano).
- Open skills are performed in moving or dynamic environments (e.g., playing tennis, catching a ball.)
Discrete skills have a clearly defined beginning and end.
Serial skills are discrete skills linked together, such as playing a piano, assembling something in a factory or even tying your shoes.
Continuous skills are ongoing and don't necessarily occur in a distinct beginning and end (e.g., running, swimming)
Skills can be further described as gross motor (larger muscle use) and fine motor (smaller muscle use).

Stages of Skill Learning

People acquire skills through different stages: cognitive, associative, and autonomous stages.
During the cognitive stage, understanding the task and its strategies is crucial.
The associative stage is about refining movements, and the autonomous stage involves making movements automatic.
It is worth noting that all these stages are not mutually exclusive and, in fact, they tend to happen simultaneously during practice.

Measuring Performance

Production measures reflect the movements required to achieve a goal.
Outcome measures capture the result of the action (eg, whether an arrow hits a target or not).

Sensory Systems

Sensory systems detect and process information from the environment and from within the body.
General components include receptors, pathways to the CNS, and integration centers in the brain.
Receptors encode sensory information, which is relayed to the CNS and processed.
Important systems are somatosensory, visual, and vestibular systems.

Somatosensory System

Detects body position and motion.
Receptors (such as muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and cutaneous receptors) send signals to the CNS.
Processed information helps to control movements and maintain posture.
Pathway: periphery to CNS (ascending afferent pathways)
Important components: proprioception, kinaesthesia and exteroception.

Visual System

Detects objects and movements in the environment.
The eye has photoreceptors (e.g. rods and cones) that turn light into signals.
Signal transmission: retina to optic nerve to brain (optic tract) Important aspects: pathways, interpretation of information.

Visual Pathways

Visual input travels through various pathways in the brain, with different areas processing different features (location, movement, shape, color).
- Dorsal stream (where): spatial features.
- Ventral stream (what): shape, identification and object recognition.

Vestibular System

Detects head position and movement.
Receptors (semicircular canals, otolith organs) detect angular and linear acceleration.
Important in balance and coordination.
Vestibular information is conveyed via the vestibulo-cochlear nerve (CN VIII) to the brain.
There are four vestibular nuclei, which relay information to other brain regions.

Sensory System Summary

Includes different sensory receptors to detect external and internal stimuli, sending signals to the CNS.
Crucial for coordination and conscious control of body position.
These interactions between systems are essential for appropriate body response to the environment and performing everyday activities.

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Description

Test your understanding of motor learning stages, characteristics, and the role of the brain and nervous system in motor control. This quiz covers key concepts such as the associative and autonomous stages of learning, functions of the motor cortex, and the components of the nervous system. Challenge yourself and deepen your knowledge in this essential area of study.