Morphology and Term Structure

Morphology and Term Structure Analysis

• Term structural analysis borrows from morphology and syntax for mono-word and multi-word terms.

What is Morphology?

• Morphology refers to the study of word forms and word formation.
• Morpho-syntax studies the interaction of morphology and syntax.
• Morphology and syntax aren't isolated but the autonomy of individual linguistic modules is assumed.
• The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (LIH) states that words are atoms in syntax.
• Syntax doesn't operate on any internal structure or component of a word.

Hierarchy of Linguistic Structures

• Syntax comprises sentence and phrase.
• Morphology focuses on word and morpheme.
• Phonology focuses on syllable and phoneme.
• Phonetics studies segments.
• A generic term (form) is a meaningful unit of speech/language and a combination of meaning(s) and speech signal(s).
• Affixes, morphemes, words, phrases and sentences are all examples of generic terms.

Word and Morpheme

• A word is the smallest free form or the minimum meaningful free form in a language.
• A word belongs to a syntactic class such as noun, verb, or preposition.
• A morpheme is the smallest meaningful form, but it lacks a syntactic class.
• Morphemes belong to morphemic categories.
• Morphemes are substructures within words.
• Forms are recurrent vocal features with meaning and recurrent stimulus-reaction features.
• In linguistics, a minimum X is an X that doesn't consist entirely of lesser X's.
• If X1 consists of X2X3X4, then X1 is not a minimum X, but if X1 consists of X2X3A, or of X2A, or of A1A2, or is unanalyzable, then X1 is a minimum X.
• A minimum form is a morpheme.
• The meaning of a minimum form is a sememe.
• A morpheme is a recurrent, meaningful form that cannot be analyzed into smaller forms.
• Any unanalyzable word or formative is a morpheme.
• A form that may be an utterance is free; forms that are not free are bound.
• "book", "the man" are free forms; "-ing" (as in writing), "-er" (as in writer) are bound forms.
• A minimum free form is a word.
• A word may be uttered alone with meaning but cannot be analyzed into parts that may all be uttered alone with meaning.
• "quick" cannot be analyzed, "quickly" can be analyzed into quick and -ly.
• A non-minimum free form is a phrase.

Free vs. Bound Morphemes

• Morphemes are classified into free and bound types.
• Free morphemes can stand alone as words.
• All free morphemes are words, but not vice versa.
• Bound morphemes cannot stand alone and adhere to base forms.
• Examples of bound morphemes: hats, doing, actively.

Allomorphs

• Allomorphs are variant forms of a morpheme, analogous to allophones of a phoneme.
• Examples: a dog, an elephant, cats (/s/), dogs (/z/), sees (/s/), watches (/əs/).

Simple vs. Complex Words

• Simple/simplex words consist of one morpheme.
• Complex words consist of more than one morpheme.
• Complex words are formed by applying a morphological process to a base.
• Examples: doings, repeatedly, collection, collectively, nationally, internationally, internationalization.

Word Structure

• Root: The form remaining after all affixes have been removed.
• Affix: Attached to a base (or stem).
• The internal structure of words can be represented as a tree structure.
• Word = root/base + affix.

Morphological Processes

• Morphological processes include affixation, internal change, suppletion, stress placement, and reduplication.
• Affixation: root/stem/base + affix -> word.
• Affixes can be prefixes, infixes, or suffixes. -Examples: prefix (prefix), infix (fan-bloody-tastic), suffix (placement), prefix + suffix (affixation).

Derivational vs. Inflectional

• Two types of bound morphemes and affixation: derivational and inflectional.
• Derivational affixes attach to a base and change meaning or word class (e.g., un-kind, dis-charge, ease-ability).
• Inflectional affixes turn a word into a variant form that reflects its syntactic property or function (e.g., dogs, does, wasted).

Compounding

• Compounding involves combining two or more words to form a new word.
• Compound words can include a hyphen.

Other Types of Word Formation

• Conversion: Changes the word class with zero derivation.
• Stress Placement: E.g., import [v] vs import [n].
• Clipping: Deletes some syllable(s) from a polysyllabic word (e.g., demo, congrats).

Word Formation

• Clitics attach to other words (e.g., I’m, they’re, there’s, Marry’s book in English; clitics in French).
• Internal change/mutation replaces a vowel in the root Verbs: sing, sang, sung; drive, drove; ring, rang, rung and nouns: foot, feet; goose, geese
• Suppletion: Replacement involving an entirely different root. Be, is, are, was, were; go, went, gone, good, better, best.
• Partial suppletion?: vs internal mutation think, thought; seek, sought; have, had
• Reduplication is the repetition of parts of a word. Very popular in oriental languages (especially Chinese)
• Blending combines non-morphemic parts (e.g., motel, modem)
• Back formation = Removing of an (imaginary) affix actions -> act, liaison -> liaise
• Abbreviation includes acronyms (putting initial letters of words together to form new words) Ex radar, sonar and initialisms ( pronouncing as a sequence of letters) Ex: BBC
• Loanwords and transliteration copy words from other languages.

English Derivational Affix

• Derivation: Affixation leading to meaning and/or category distinctive word(s)
• Suffix: Adjective: -able, -ful, -(i)al, -(i)an, -ic, -less, -(i)ous, ..., Noun: -(at)ion, -er, -ing, -al, -ment, -ity, -ness, ..., Verb: -ize, -ate, ... | Adverb: -ly
• Prefix: anti-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, mis-, un-, re-, ...
• Infix: another → a-whole-nother | fantastic → fan-bloody-tastic

Compounding and Complex Derivation Diagrams Breakdown

• Several diagrams are showing the breakdown of phrases and words.

Inflection

• Inflection modifies word forms to indicate grammatical category change mostly by affixation
• Plural: -s e.g., apples, hands, …, Exceptional case: man/men, phenomenon/phenomena and Chinese does not have plural forms

Regular vs. Irregular inflections

• Regular plurals add "-s" (criteria, fish, sheep, waters)
• Verb: 3rd person singular in present tense + s, progressive/gerund have -ing. past tense -ed

English cases

• Case marking grammatical role of a word by: Nominate subject.
• Accusative and
• Dative object recipient
• Ablative direction
• Genitive or possessive possesssions

Agreement and Tense

• Referencing agreement and person and number agreement

Chinese Morphology

• Most morphemes are monosyllabic,.
• There is no clear boundary between words and non-words.
• Many are disyllabic (two syllables), and few multi-syllabic
• Question raised about words vs morphemes

Chinese Bound and Free Morphemes

• Free morphemes turn into words
• Includes number of syllabic known as binome

Common and Special Affixes in Chinese

• Prefix example阿(毛/貓/狗/三/四),老(李/鼠/婆/手)
• Suffixes 子,兒,頭,手,家,者,員,於,然
• Infix 裡(糊裡糊塗,稀裡糊塗
• Productivity = are子,兒,頭 more productive than 初

More and more Affixes in Chinese

• Suffixes 夫师
• There are characters that don't look like appix, ex:人(men) and 叶(leaves)

Compounding in Chinese

• Very complicated, and some examples used are:
• University 大学, College 中学,高中(High School), 初中(Middle school)
• Acronyms, like cityU

Aspects in Chinese

• Aspects defines status of events and is not defined by tim

Parallelism: Morphology & Syntax

• Strong parallelism between Chinese morphology and syntax with similar structural components.

Modifier/Attributive-head pattern description

• 前一詞素修飾後一詞素。前偏,後正(=中心)。
• A structural process known as Attributive modifier

Conjunction Coordination

• Consisting of combination equal morpheme or 近或反義詞素或 Conjunction / Coordination •

Subject-predicate pattern description

• 主謂結構 Subject-predicate/ Nominal-verbal structure • 前詞素為主語,被陈述对象. • 主语陈述对象

Predicate-object pattern

• Is a Verbal-nominal structure known as is • 前詞素表示动作或行为. • The predicate describes the action and object describes the verb

54 slides in are Predicate-complement & Preposition in objects for description

English derivational and inflection table

Complex Derivation

• Diagrams show how a word's meaning can be broken down into base and affix.

Compounding table and relation

• Diagrams show word's compound relation

Inflection

• Plural is created by affix-ation, but the Chinese language doesn't change
• Ex "dogs, book" and "apple"

productivity

• This explains variants and exception
• Many bases,

Regular vs irregular

Criteria, fish, sheep water (uncountable)

Adjective Table

• Comparative
• Superlative"

Case Description + Noun cases

• Marking grammatical role of a word.
• Popular, like nominate and abusive

Agreements and Tense

Person and number agreement, e.g. chinese

Chinese morphology

And words vs morphemes

Word formation

• The description and breakdown of term formation

Term categorization

• Describes different category like monogamous term.
• Monogamous: One To many
• Synonym: two to many
• Homonym: Same Sound

Term categorization (Ctd)

Variant form

Term categorization (Ctd)

The word in Chinese

Term structures (Ctd)

• Initial + syllables -->acronym • Clipping --> examination=exam • Blending --> motor +hotel = Motel

Term categorized by tree

• The tree diagram and note label are geometric

Structures of mono-board table

• This is morphology

Examples table

• Data parameters and examples

Attributes adjective

For example: a car is red

Word examples

• Examples of verbs and sentence structures and sentence structures • Auxiliary/ aspect particle • The difference from the example

Post Positions (Nouns and Verbs)

• There are pre and post positions • Modifiers for verbs, and prepositions like the word Again, then for and 對

Terms categorization (Chinese)

• The 4 basic tones in Chinese

Affinity for language:

Describing language's super prefix

Terms and suffix/prefix

• Examples given of suffix and prefixes with explanations

Terms by semantic relations

• Example attribute from 25-64 with breakdown

Literal and real meaning

• Discuss the different form what the different parts of speech

Examples of ambiguous patterns

• Word and verb phrase broken down to chart.

Potential Ambiguous

1/8 to 3/9 charts broken down into 2 sections

Ambiguous

• The breakdown to different types of verbs and word
• How you structure the word to become less ambiguous

Irremovable

• Even though, you follow all these rules, some words cannot be changed

Affinity

• More details and chart.