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Questions and Answers
What are the three primary functions of the nervous system?
What are the three primary functions of the nervous system?
Which part of the nervous system is responsible for processing sensory information?
Which part of the nervous system is responsible for processing sensory information?
What is the primary role of ganglia in the nervous system?
What is the primary role of ganglia in the nervous system?
What term describes the long extension of a neuron that transmits signals?
What term describes the long extension of a neuron that transmits signals?
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What is the resting potential of a neuron?
What is the resting potential of a neuron?
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Which component is essential for the nourishment and structural integrity of neurons?
Which component is essential for the nourishment and structural integrity of neurons?
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How does sensory information typically reach the brain?
How does sensory information typically reach the brain?
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What primary function do motor neurons serve in the nervous system?
What primary function do motor neurons serve in the nervous system?
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Where are action potentials formed in myelinated axons?
Where are action potentials formed in myelinated axons?
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What process describes the jumping of action potentials between the nodes of Ranvier?
What process describes the jumping of action potentials between the nodes of Ranvier?
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What primarily characterizes chemical synapses?
What primarily characterizes chemical synapses?
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Which statement is true concerning presynaptic neurons?
Which statement is true concerning presynaptic neurons?
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What happens to neurotransmitters after their release into the synaptic cleft?
What happens to neurotransmitters after their release into the synaptic cleft?
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In which type of animals is cephalization most prominently observed?
In which type of animals is cephalization most prominently observed?
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What best describes a nerve net in simple nervous systems?
What best describes a nerve net in simple nervous systems?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of direct synaptic transmission?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of direct synaptic transmission?
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What primarily maintains the concentration gradients of K+ and Na+ across the plasma membrane in a neuron?
What primarily maintains the concentration gradients of K+ and Na+ across the plasma membrane in a neuron?
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What causes the negative charge within a resting neuron?
What causes the negative charge within a resting neuron?
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During the refractory period after an action potential, why can a second action potential not be initiated?
During the refractory period after an action potential, why can a second action potential not be initiated?
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How does myelin sheath affect the conduction speed of action potentials?
How does myelin sheath affect the conduction speed of action potentials?
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What occurs at the site where an action potential is generated in the axon?
What occurs at the site where an action potential is generated in the axon?
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What role does the Na+ K+ pump play during the repolarization phase of the action potential?
What role does the Na+ K+ pump play during the repolarization phase of the action potential?
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What prevents an action potential from traveling backwards along the axon?
What prevents an action potential from traveling backwards along the axon?
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What is the primary factor that increases the speed of action potentials in vertebrate axons?
What is the primary factor that increases the speed of action potentials in vertebrate axons?
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What primary function does the midbrain serve?
What primary function does the midbrain serve?
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Which part of the brain is essential for coordinating motor skills and error checking during physical activities?
Which part of the brain is essential for coordinating motor skills and error checking during physical activities?
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What role does the hypothalamus play in the vertebrate brain?
What role does the hypothalamus play in the vertebrate brain?
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Which structure serves as the main input center for sensory information to the cerebrum?
Which structure serves as the main input center for sensory information to the cerebrum?
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Which lobe of the cerebral cortex would primarily process visual information?
Which lobe of the cerebral cortex would primarily process visual information?
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What structure connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres?
What structure connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres?
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Which part of the brain is largely responsible for emotional responses?
Which part of the brain is largely responsible for emotional responses?
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Which function is primarily attributed to the medulla oblongata?
Which function is primarily attributed to the medulla oblongata?
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What is the primary function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
What is the primary function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
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What differentiates gray matter from white matter in the central nervous system?
What differentiates gray matter from white matter in the central nervous system?
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Which animal is an example of a more sophisticated nervous system structure among invertebrates?
Which animal is an example of a more sophisticated nervous system structure among invertebrates?
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What type of neural response is triggered when a doctor taps the knee?
What type of neural response is triggered when a doctor taps the knee?
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In vertebrates, where does the central nervous system primarily reside?
In vertebrates, where does the central nervous system primarily reside?
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Which type of neurons in the PNS carry information away from the central nervous system?
Which type of neurons in the PNS carry information away from the central nervous system?
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Which component is NOT part of the central nervous system?
Which component is NOT part of the central nervous system?
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The role of ganglia in the nervous system is to:
The role of ganglia in the nervous system is to:
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What is the primary function of the motor system in the peripheral nervous system?
What is the primary function of the motor system in the peripheral nervous system?
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Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the body's 'fight or flight' response?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the body's 'fight or flight' response?
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Which of the following actions is primarily stimulated by the parasympathetic division?
Which of the following actions is primarily stimulated by the parasympathetic division?
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How does the sympathetic division affect the heart?
How does the sympathetic division affect the heart?
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What is the role of the enteric division in the autonomic nervous system?
What is the role of the enteric division in the autonomic nervous system?
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What effect does the sympathetic division have on bronchial tubes in the lungs?
What effect does the sympathetic division have on bronchial tubes in the lungs?
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What happens to the pupil of the eye when the parasympathetic division is activated?
What happens to the pupil of the eye when the parasympathetic division is activated?
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Which of the following best describes the relationship between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
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Which organ's activity is inhibited by the sympathetic division?
Which organ's activity is inhibited by the sympathetic division?
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What is the primary role of the PNS in relation to sensory neurons?
What is the primary role of the PNS in relation to sensory neurons?
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Which part of the brain contains centers for integrating sensory information?
Which part of the brain contains centers for integrating sensory information?
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What is a primary function of the cerebellum?
What is a primary function of the cerebellum?
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Which structure serves as the primary output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum?
Which structure serves as the primary output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum?
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What is the function of the hypothalamus in the vertebrate brain?
What is the function of the hypothalamus in the vertebrate brain?
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What is the role of the corpus callosum in the brain?
What is the role of the corpus callosum in the brain?
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Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for processing auditory information?
Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for processing auditory information?
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What structures are included in the limbic system?
What structures are included in the limbic system?
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Which of the following accurately describes the primary characteristic of the cerebral cortex?
Which of the following accurately describes the primary characteristic of the cerebral cortex?
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Which component of the central nervous system primarily contains neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated axons?
Which component of the central nervous system primarily contains neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated axons?
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What function do afferent neurons in the peripheral nervous system serve?
What function do afferent neurons in the peripheral nervous system serve?
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In which of the following animals would you expect to find a more sophisticated nervous system structure as opposed to a simple nerve net?
In which of the following animals would you expect to find a more sophisticated nervous system structure as opposed to a simple nerve net?
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What is the primary role of the spinal cord in the central nervous system?
What is the primary role of the spinal cord in the central nervous system?
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Which statement describes the peripheral nervous system?
Which statement describes the peripheral nervous system?
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What type of synapse uses chemical neurotransmitters to transmit information?
What type of synapse uses chemical neurotransmitters to transmit information?
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What type of neural response is primarily associated with reflex actions?
What type of neural response is primarily associated with reflex actions?
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Which of the following structures is a cluster of neurons found in the peripheral nervous system?
Which of the following structures is a cluster of neurons found in the peripheral nervous system?
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What is the function of ligand-gated ion channels in the postsynaptic cell?
What is the function of ligand-gated ion channels in the postsynaptic cell?
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Which structure connects the synaptic terminal of a neuron to another cell?
Which structure connects the synaptic terminal of a neuron to another cell?
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What is primarily responsible for the reflex action of the knee-jerk response when a doctor taps the knee?
What is primarily responsible for the reflex action of the knee-jerk response when a doctor taps the knee?
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What primarily characterizes saltatory conduction in myelinated axons?
What primarily characterizes saltatory conduction in myelinated axons?
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In which type of nervous system organization is cephalization primarily observed?
In which type of nervous system organization is cephalization primarily observed?
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What occurs to neurotransmitters after they have been released into the synaptic cleft?
What occurs to neurotransmitters after they have been released into the synaptic cleft?
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At the nodes of Ranvier, what type of channels are primarily responsible for action potential generation?
At the nodes of Ranvier, what type of channels are primarily responsible for action potential generation?
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What structure serves as a series of interconnected nerve cells in the simplest nervous systems?
What structure serves as a series of interconnected nerve cells in the simplest nervous systems?
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Which ion is primarily responsible for creating the negative charge inside a resting neuron?
Which ion is primarily responsible for creating the negative charge inside a resting neuron?
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What role does the sodium-potassium pump play in neuronal function?
What role does the sodium-potassium pump play in neuronal function?
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During the refractory period, what effect do inactivated Na+ channels have on the action potential?
During the refractory period, what effect do inactivated Na+ channels have on the action potential?
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What is the primary reason that action potentials travel in one direction along an axon?
What is the primary reason that action potentials travel in one direction along an axon?
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How does the myelin sheath affect the speed of action potentials?
How does the myelin sheath affect the speed of action potentials?
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What primarily occurs at the site where an action potential is generated in the axon?
What primarily occurs at the site where an action potential is generated in the axon?
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What happens to the equilibrium between K+ and Na+ during the resting potential?
What happens to the equilibrium between K+ and Na+ during the resting potential?
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What is the effect of a myelin sheath on the nodes of Ranvier in an axon?
What is the effect of a myelin sheath on the nodes of Ranvier in an axon?
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What primary function does the autonomic nervous system serve?
What primary function does the autonomic nervous system serve?
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Which division of the peripheral nervous system primarily stimulates digestion?
Which division of the peripheral nervous system primarily stimulates digestion?
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How does the sympathetic division affect heart rate?
How does the sympathetic division affect heart rate?
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Which of the following is a characteristic action of the parasympathetic division?
Which of the following is a characteristic action of the parasympathetic division?
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What main role does the enteric division of the autonomic nervous system play?
What main role does the enteric division of the autonomic nervous system play?
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Which action is typically inhibited by the sympathetic division?
Which action is typically inhibited by the sympathetic division?
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Which effect results from sympathetic stimulation of the lungs?
Which effect results from sympathetic stimulation of the lungs?
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What is the primary role of the motor system in the peripheral nervous system?
What is the primary role of the motor system in the peripheral nervous system?
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What effect does the parasympathetic division have on the bladder?
What effect does the parasympathetic division have on the bladder?
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What is the primary purpose of interneurons in the nervous system?
What is the primary purpose of interneurons in the nervous system?
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What characteristic primarily defines dendrites in a neuron?
What characteristic primarily defines dendrites in a neuron?
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How is information transmitted along a neuron?
How is information transmitted along a neuron?
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What role do glial cells play in the nervous system?
What role do glial cells play in the nervous system?
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What accurately describes the process of motor output in the nervous system?
What accurately describes the process of motor output in the nervous system?
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Which component of the nervous system is primarily responsible for regulating internal body functions?
Which component of the nervous system is primarily responsible for regulating internal body functions?
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What is the significance of membrane potential in neurons?
What is the significance of membrane potential in neurons?
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What best describes the function of sensory neurons in the nervous system?
What best describes the function of sensory neurons in the nervous system?
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Study Notes
Module BL1004: Animal Physiology
- This module covers animal physiology
- Professor Rob McAllen teaches the module
- The module is part of the School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland
- Contact information is provided for the professor
Nervous System
- Electric signals in animals (Chapter 48 pg 1125 Campbell)
- Integrated physiological mechanisms
- Barnacles on rocky shores are an example
- Sponge diversity is covered in another section of the presentation
Sponge Diversity
- Variety of sponges are shown in the presentation
Sponge Film
- A presentation about sponges
Overview: Command and Control Center
- Controls feelings, perceptions, and movement
- Enables learning, remembering, thinking, and awareness
- Regulates internal body functions and behavior
Overview: Lines of Communication
- Nervous system has three functions: sensory input, integration, and motor output
- Sensors detect stimuli to transmit information to sensory neurons
- Sensory information is processed in the brain or ganglia (interneurons)
- Motor output leaves the brain or ganglia via motor neurons for muscle/gland activity (Peripheral Nervous System -PNS)
- Example of the doctor - knee jerk response
- Neurons are nerve cells for information transfer
- Signal transmission depends on the path of neurons
- Processing of information occurs in ganglia (clusters of neurons) or a brain (more complex organization of neurons)
Neuron
- Function: Transmission of signals
- Most neurons have dendrites (highly branched extensions) for receiving signals from other neurons
- Axons extend signals from terminal branches to other cells at synapses
- Neuron's organelles are in the cell body
- Neurons are nourished and insulated by glia (essential for the structure and normal functioning of the nervous system)
Neuron - Every cell has a voltage difference across its plasma membrane called membrane potential
- Messages are transmitted as changes in membrane potential
- The resting potential is the membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals
- Ion pumps and ion channels maintain the resting potential of a neuron
Neuron - Formation of the Resting Potential
- At rest, the concentration of K+ is higher inside the cell, while the concentration of Na+ is higher outside the cell
- Sodium-potassium pumps use ATP energy to maintain K+ and Na+ gradients across the plasma membrane
- These concentration gradients represent chemical potential energy
- The opening of ion channels in the plasma membrane converts chemical potential to electrical potential
- A neuron at resting potential has many open K+ channels and fewer open Na+ channels; K+ diffuses out of the cell
- Anions trapped inside the cell contribute to the negative charge inside the neuron
- In a resting neuron, the currents of K+ and Na+ are equal and opposite, keeping the resting potential steady
Formation of Action Potentials
- A detailed sequence about how action potentials are formed.
- Key terms and stages are highlighted
- Depolarization (stimulus opens sodium channels)
- Rising phase of the action potential
- Falling phase of the action potential
- Undershoot
During the refractory period after an action potential
- A second action potential cannot be initiated and the impulse moves only in one direction along the axon
- The refractory period results from a temporary inactivation of the Na+ channels
- The refractory period is a period of repolarization where the Na+-K+ pump restores the membrane to its original polarized condition
Conduction of Action Potentials
- Action potentials travel long distances by regenerating themselves along the axon
- At the generated site, an electrical current depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane, preventing the action potential from traveling backwards.
- Action potentials move, only, in one direction toward the synaptic terminals
Conduction of Action Potentials
- Action potential speed increases with the axon's diameter.
- Vertebrate axons' insulation, by a myelin sheath, increases action potential speed
- Myelin sheaths are composed of glia (oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS)
Conduction of Action Potentials
- Action potentials are formed only at nodes of Ranvier
- Action potentials jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a process called saltatory conduction
Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses
- Synapse is a junction that controls communication between cells
- At electrical synapses, electrical current flows between neurons
- At chemical synapses, a neurotransmitter carries information across the gap junction (synapse), which are mostly chemical synapses
There are two types of synapses
- The synaptic terminal passes information across the synapse in the form of chemical messengers (neurotransmitters)
- Information is transmitted from a presynaptic cell (neuron) to a postsynaptic cell (neuron, muscle, or gland cell)
Chemical synapses
- The presynaptic neuron synthesizes and packages neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles, located in the synaptic terminal.
- Action potential causes neurotransmitter release.
- Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and is received by the postsynaptic cell.
Chemical synapses
- Direct synaptic transmission involves binding neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion channels in the postsynaptic cell (generating a postsynaptic potential)
- After release, the neurotransmitter may diffuse out of the synaptic cleft, be taken up by surrounding cells, or be degraded by enzymes
"Neural Regulation in Animals"
- Chapter 49 pg 1143 Campbell
Plane or axis of symmetry
- Different types of symmetry are shown and described (e.g., Radial, Bilateral)
Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
- Simplest animals with nervous systems (cnidarians) have nerve nets (interconnected nerve cells with no central pathway or directional organization).
- Examples include starfish (nerve net in each arm, connected by radial nerves to a central nerve ring)
Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
- Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit cephalization (clustering of sensory organs at the front end of the body).
- Examples of cephalized animals with CNS include Planarian, Leech, Insect, Chiton and Squid.
In vertebrates
- CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord (integration of information occurs here).
- PNS is composed of nerves and ganglia, transferring information to and from the CNS
- Diagram showing CNS and PNS in a vertebrate
Central Nervous System
- The brain and spinal cord contain gray matter (neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons) and white matter (bundles of myelinated axons)
- Diagrams showing gray and white matter arrangement
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System
- A reflex is the body's automatic response to a stimulus.
- Example: doctor's use of a mallet to trigger a knee-jerk reflex
- Diagram illustrating the spinal cord's reflex arc components (sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron).
Peripheral Nervous System
- PNS transmits information to and from the CNS and controls movement and internal environment.
- Afferent neurons transmit information to the CNS, and efferent neurons transmit information away from the CNS
- Cranial nerves originate in the brain and mostly terminate in head and upper body organs
- Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord extending to the body below the head
Peripheral Nervous System
- PNS has two functional components: motor system (voluntary) and autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
- Autonomic nervous system has three divisions: sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric.
Peripheral Nervous System (diagram)
- Shows the relationships between the PNS, motor system, autonomic nervous system (with sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions).
The brain
- The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized.
- Brainstem coordinates and conducts information between brain centers (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata).
- Medulla oblongata controls cardiovascular activity, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.
- Cerebellum coordinates motor function and perceptual/cognitive functions. It plays a role in learning and remembering motor skills (e.g., hand-eye coordination)
The brain
- Embryonic diencephalon develops into three regions (epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus).
- Epithalamus includes the pineal gland (produces melatonin).
- Thalamus is the main sensory input center to the cerebrum, and the main output center for motor information to leave the cerebrum.
- Hypothalamus regulates homeostasis and basic survival behaviors.
The brain
- Cerebrum has right and left cerebral hemispheres
- Each hemisphere consists of cerebral cortex(gray matter, overlying white matter and basal nuclei).
- Cerebral cortex is the largest and most complex part of the brain in humans.
The brain
- Corpus callosum connects right and left cerebral cortices
- Right cerebral cortex controls the left side of the body and vice versa.
The brain
- Cerebral cortex has four lobes: frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal
- Each lobe contains primary sensory areas; where information is integrated in association areas.
The limbic system
- Emotions are generated and experienced by the limbic system and other brain parts, including sensory areas
- The limbic system is a ring of structures around the brainstem involving the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus
- Amygdala in the temporal lobe helps store emotional experiences as emotional memory
Memory and Learning
- Learning occurs through new connections or changes in the strength of existing connections between neurons.
- Short-term memory is accessed via the hippocampus.
- Hippocampus also plays a role in forming long-term memories stored in the cerebral cortex
Acknowledgements
- Majority of content is from Campbell's Biology
- Dr. Ramiro Crego from the School of BEES contributed to the presentation
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Description
This quiz covers key concepts in animal physiology, focusing on the nervous system and sponge diversity as discussed in Module BL1004. It explores the physiological mechanisms in animals, including sensory input and internal regulation. Test your knowledge of the integration of these systems and their significance in wildlife biology.
