Military and Internal Weaknesses of Societies

The weakening military power of the central Ottoman government, leading to loss of authority.

Local rulers who maintained autonomy and created private armies to support the sultan in exchange for recognition.

When local rulers collected taxes for themselves instead of the central government, diminishing state revenue.

The Ottoman Empire's loss of lands due to conflicts with Russia, Austria, and nationalist uprisings.

The formal acknowledgment by Ottoman rulers of the independence of Balkan provinces like Greece and Serbia.

The 1798 invasion of Egypt by Napoleon, aimed at threatening British interests but ultimately failing.

The general who gained control of Egypt post-Napoleon, creating a strong military and economic reforms.

Muhammad Ali's initiative focusing on cotton textiles and armaments to strengthen the economy and military.

Agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law.

The right of foreign powers to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens in a host country.

Capitulation treaties signed by Ottoman sultans to manage foreign merchants.

The establishment of European businesses in the Ottoman empire using capitulations.

Reduced revenue in the Ottoman state leading to a budget crisis.

Elite infantry units of the Ottoman empire that opposed military reforms.

Plans by Ottoman leaders to strengthen the state amid crises.

Successor to Selim III, who faced revolt from the Janissaries.

A dissident organization promoting reform in the Ottoman Empire, founded in 1889.

The right for all adults to vote, irrespective of gender, race, or status.

The process of separating religion from political and educational institutions.

The liberation of women from restrictive social and legal norms.

Another name for the Young Turk Party, focused on reforming the empire.

The first constitution of the Ottoman Empire, which limited the sultan's powers.

The re-establishment of parliamentary governance after the Young Turks' coup.

Changes in education policy to use Turkish and modern curricula in schools.

Period from 1908 to 1918 when Ottoman sultans reigned but did not rule effectively.

The Young Turks' goal to establish Turkish dominance in the Ottoman Empire.

The Young Turks made Turkish the official language, ignoring other ethnic languages.

Active opposition by Arab peoples in Syria and Iraq against Ottoman rule.

Despite reforms, the empire continued to lose wars and faced demands for autonomy.

Battlefield losses that highlighted Russia's lag behind Western European powers.

The significant reform in Russia that freed serfs and initiated social change.

Radical reactions against Tsarist autocracy that escalated in the late 19th century.

A series of initiatives to modernize the Ottoman Empire in response to European encroachment.

The event where Mahmud II's loyal troops killed mutinous Janissaries in 1826.

The new military force organized by Mahmud II, trained and equipped like European armies.

Institutions established to educate Ottoman recruits in European curricula.

Mahmud's effort to reduce the influence of traditional elites and strengthen the sultan's authority.

Mahmud II's establishment of European-style ministries and public services.

The Ottoman ruler from 1876 to 1909, known for a reign marked by reform and eventual deposition.

An era of significant reform in the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1876 aimed at modernization.

Changes made to the Ottoman legal system to ensure equality and lift European capitulations.

A series of initiatives to create a state-controlled education system including primary to university levels.

A legal code promulgated in 1850 to regulate commerce in the Ottoman Empire.

A principle guaranteeing that all subjects, regardless of religion, are treated equally under Ottoman law.

Islamic scholars and clerics who traditionally had significant influence over religious and legal matters.

Resistance from religious conservatives and minority leaders against the reforms.

An ambitious plan initiated in 1869 to ensure education is accessible to all children without cost.