Middle East Politics and Protests

Week 1 Study Notes

• Syria, a young country in an ancient land, gained independence in 1945 but had been ruled by France and Britain previously. Colonial borders disregarded local traditions, creating a fragmented state.
• Syria had a diverse population including Arabs, Kurds, and various religious groups (Sunni Muslims, Alawis, Druze, Christians). This diversity complicated national unity.
• Arab nationalism aimed for a unified Arab state, while Kurds sought cultural rights.
• Political instability characterized Syria from 1949 to 1970, with eight successful coups.
• Syria briefly joined the United Arab Republic (1958-1961), but left due to authoritarianism. The Ba'ath Party seized power in 1963, adopting radical policies.
• Hafez al-Assad stabilized Syria in 1970. He strengthened state power building public support, and job creation.
• Hafez's rule benefited from the 1970s oil boom and Arab cooperation, along with Cold War dynamics that saw the Soviet Union back Syria and the US showing little concern about repressions.
• Hafez played a role in Lebanon's civil war.
• Bashar al-Assad, Hafez's son, succeeded him in 2000. Despite initial hopes for reform, his leadership faced a confrontation with the U.S. under President George W. Bush, and re-established his father's support for non-state militias.

Week 2 Study Notes

• Liberalism emphasizes individual freedom, political participation, private property, and equality of opportunity to contribute to peace and stability in international relations.
• Liberal theories posit international peace and security will increase with democracy, free trade, and membership in international organizations.
• Democratic peace theory suggests democracies are less likely to engage in wars with each other.
• Economic interdependence reduces military conflict, as states with strong economic ties are less likely to resort to force. International organizations provide cooperative solutions in international relations.
• Classical liberals believe in gradual improvement of the human condition through reason and human action.
• Neoliberal institutionalism emphasizes the role of international institutions in fostering cooperation and managing conflicts.

Week 3 Study Notes

• President Obama's "red line" regarding chemical weapons use in Syria didn't result in a military intervention
• The 2013 Ghouta chemical attack, which killed many civilians, led to international outrage and pressure on the Assad regime to disarm. This resulted in a UN-led agreement for Syria to surrender its chemical weapons.
• Despite initial success, enforcement of the agreement proved difficult. Challenges included attribution of responsibility for chemical attacks, bureaucratic obstacles in the implementation of the agreement, and differing interpretations of the legal norms associated with the prohibition of chemical weapons. This highlights the complexities of applying international norms in a conflict zone.

Week 4 Study Notes

• Al-Qaeda, initially focused on resistance in Afghanistan, evolved into a global jihadist network.
• The group's structure is a multifaceted one—ranging from Al-Qaeda Central leadership to affiliated and associated groups in specific regional conflicts.
• The group's ideology espouses a return to an interpretation of Islam considered pious/pure. They often claim a necessary global jihad.
• Al-Qaeda has utilized a wide range of practices and strategic methods, including recruitment, use of social media, and financial support to survive and grow their ranks. It also involved in different groups, acting independently of each other, but working towards similar objectives.

Week 5 Study Notes

• The securitization of migration concerns the social construction of migration as a security threat.
• The Copenhagen School's securitization theory frames security not as an objective condition. but as the outcome of a particular social process.
• The discourse surrounding refugees and asylum seekers as security threats reflects the power dynamics and politics of the host states and their concerns over issues of identity, economic competition, and perceived dangers to governance.
• An inclusive security approach seeks to solve the root causes of forced migration to address the challenges of displacement.

Week 6 Study Notes

• Wartime rape and sexual violence are understood as a key form of conflict violence, targeting women and girls.
• The focus on sexual violence by ISIS as a distinct issue has obscured the broader spectrum of gender-based violence (GBV) in conflict contexts. This emphasizes the need for a broader understanding that encompasses diverse forms of violence and their systemic causes, taking into account their local context.
• The rise of extremist groups exacerbated gendered narratives, reinforcing stereotypes, and impacting women who participate.

Week 7 Study Notes

• The global chemical weapons taboo has been challenged by a state's use of chlorine gas attacks in Syria, particularly amidst the wider Syrian civil war.
• Although the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) exists to prohibit the use and production of chemical weapons (CW), there are still concerns about enforcing this norm in warfare because of varying interpretations, political pressures, and difficulties in attribution of the responsibility for CW attacks.
• The Syrian conflict underscores the complexity of enforcing international norms in the midst of conflict and the challenges in addressing such violations while upholding the legitimacy of the legal process and the safety of those involved in the verification process.

Week 8 Study Notes

• Historical motivations for conflict, like greed and grievance, have complex factors underpinning them, and are not always simply about the immediate profit.
• Studies show that in many civil wars, economic incentives play a much larger role and that grievance arguments often mask these other factors.

Week 9 Study Notes

• The rise of organized crime within conflict zones, like Syria, can overlap with and even become intertwined with terrorist networks. The presence and power of states, their level of disruption, the economic environment have a role in the relationship between the criminal groups and their ideological sponsors in conflict and non-conflict regions.
• The crime-terror nexus, which can be both long-term or short-term, is highly complex as this relationship is shaped by economic and geographic factors that affect the stability of the state, and it's the interaction or relationship between state actors and non-state actors that form the nexus.

Week 10 Study Notes

• This week focuses specifically on the Syrian civil conflict crisis following the end of the Islamic State's territorial control.
• The Syrian Civil War highlighted competing financial interests among different sponsors that influenced the fragmented rebel groups, shifting them toward regional or sectarian struggles.
• In addition to state sponsorship, funding from private donors and Islamic charities provided unprecedented financial resources to the Syrian civil war.
• The impact of financial incentives on the Syrian conflict was significant as it changed the ideological and operational character of rebel groups and their alliances.

Week 11 Study Notes (Exam Week)

• This week is about summarising the major themes and developments of the Syrian civil war, including the regional and external actors involved.
• The political and economic factors influencing the war are key, along with the role of the international community in responding to the crisis. Discussions about culpability or responsibility for actions are essential.

Week 12 Study Notes

• The political and economic factors influencing the war in Syria.
• The role of international actors and responses to the crisis.
• The complexities of culpability and responsibility for actions during the crisis and the role of resources and financial support in the conflict.