Middle East Before Islam: Byzantine & Sasanian Empires

Middle East Before Islam

• Two empires dominated the Middle East in the 7th century: the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Sasanian Empire in the east.
• Both empires were weakened by a centuries-long rivalry.
• The Byzantine Empire continued the Roman Empire in the east with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul).
• Its territories spanned from the Italian Peninsula to the Middle East, including Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and parts of Iraq and Anatolia.
• The Byzantine-Sasanian Wars (540–629 CE) drained the treasuries of the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empires and alienated the subjects.
• The Byzantine state persecuted religious minorities, weakening internal unity..
• The Sasanian Empire was centered in Iran and controlled Mesopotamia, Persia, and parts of Central Asia.
• The empire was religiously diverse but Zoroastrianism was the official state religion.
• The Sasanian Empire was ruled by an absolute monarch, the shahanshah (king of kings).

Pre-Islamic Arabia

• In contrast to Byzantium and Sasanian Iran, pre-Islamic Arabia was a fragmented tribal society.
• Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by Bedouin tribes bound by kinship and loyalty, leading to warfare over scarce resources.
• Arabs were unified by the Bedouin ethos of bravery and honor celebrated in Arabic poetry (qasidah).
• Pre-Islamic Arabia was religiously diverse, with animism, polytheism, and some monotheistic influences (Christianity and Judaism)
• Mecca was a major commercial hub and benefited from the north-south caravan trade through the Hijaz region

Rise of Islam

• The rise of Islam began with Prophet Muhammad, born in Mecca around 570 CE.
• At age 40, Muhammad experienced a spiritual transformation and received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel.
• Muhammad's message promoted worshipping Allah (God), rejecting idolatry, social justice, charity, and accountability in the afterlife.
• Muhammad faced opposition from the Meccan elite, who saw his teachings as a threat.
• In 622 CE, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (the Hijra), marking the start of the Islamic calendar.
• In Medina, Muhammad established an Islamic state and united much of Arabia under Islam.
• Muhammad established a community (ummah) bound by shared religious beliefs and practices outlined in the Quran.

The Rashidun Caliphate

• The death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE led to the question of leadership, and Abu Bakr was named the first caliph (successor).
• Abu Bakr's appointment led to seeds of future conflicts but the development of the new religious community continued.
• The first four caliphs—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali—are known as the Rashidun (Rightly Guided) caliphs.
• The Rashidun caliphs transformed the Arab tribes into a unified force that conquered vast territories.
• Arab armies conquered the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon in 637 CE, leading to the collapse of the Sasanian Empire by 651 CE.
• Arab armies captured Damascus in 635 CE, Jerusalem in 638 CE, and Egypt by 641 CE.
• By 670 CE, Arab forces reached Tunisia, and by 711 CE, they crossed into Spain.
• The westward expansion was halted at the Battle of Poitiers (732 CE) in France.
• The Arabs allowed non-Muslims (dhimmis) to practice their religions in exchange for paying a poll tax (jizya).
• Caliph Uthman's assassination in 656 CE triggered the first major civil war (Fitna).
• The civil war led to the Sunni-Shia divide over leadership succession.
• The Shia believed leadership should remain within Muhammad's family, while the Sunni majority accepted the legitimacy of elected caliphs.

The Umayyad Caliphate

• After Ali's death, Muawiyah established the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE), which was based in Damascus.
• The Umayyads continued conquests, expanding into Central Asia and the Iberian Peninsula.
• The Umayyad rule was marked by Arab exclusivism, favoring Arab Muslims over non-Arab converts.

The Abbasid Caliphate

• In 750 CE, the Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyads and established the Abbasid Caliphate.
• The Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad, embracing a more inclusive and universalist approach to Islam.
• They adopted Persian administrative practices and promoted a cosmopolitan culture and leading to a golden age of Islamic civilization.
• Baghdad became a hub of trade, learning, and innovation, reaching a population of 1 million by the 9th century.
• The Abbasids fostered a vibrant intellectual culture, translating works from Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions into Arabic.
• The rise of Islamic law (Sharia), integrated Quranic principles with local customs and legal traditions.
• The Abbasid Empire is often considered the end of the Islamic golden age.
• Other regional Islamic empires coexisted with or succeeded the Abbasids, enriching Islamic traditions.

Other Islamic Empires

• The Umayyads of Córdoba (756–1031 CE) was founded by Abd al-Rahman I in Córdoba, Spain.
• The Umayyads of Córdoba created a flourishing Islamic civilization and intellectual achievements.
• The Fatimids of Egypt (909–1171 CE) was based in Cairo was a Shia dynasty that rivaled the Abbasids.
• The Fatimids established Al-Azhar University, one of the oldest universities of the world.
• The Seljuks emerged in the 11th century, played a key role in defending the Islamic world against the Crusades.
• The Mughals of India (1526–1857 CE) was known for its synthesis of Persian, Indian, and Islamic cultures.
• Introduction of new crops from India (rice, sugarcane, and cotton) to regions like Iraq, Egypt, and Spain.
• Islamic merchants established trade networks that connected the Middle East with China, India, Africa, and Europe.
• Wealth from agriculture and trade fueled the rise of a sophisticated urban culture and the rise of elite scholars.
• The Abbasid caliphs sponsored the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, preserving works from Greek, Persian, and Indian traditions.

Islamic Civilization

• Islamic civilization was defined by its political, economic, religious, and social institutions.
• The Five Pillars of Islam and Sharia (Islamic law) provided a unifying framework for Muslim societies.
• Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, Sawm, Hajj
• The ulama (Islamic scholars) interpreted Sharia and preserved Islamic knowledge.
• Sufism (Islamic mysticism) emphasized personal devotion and spiritual experience.
• Jihad means "struggle" or "striving," which includes internal (spiritual) and external (physical) efforts.
• Ijtihad is the effort by qualified scholars to interpret Sharia for new situations.
• The Islamic community divided into the Sunni and Shia branches over leadership succession.

The Ottoman Empire

• The Ottomans defeated the Mamluks and conquered Syria, Egypt, and the Hejaz under Sultan Selim I.
• Süleyman I led the Ottomans to their peak, expanding into Europe and the Middle East.
• The Safavid Empire was established in Iran in the early 16th century under Shah Ismail I.
• The Safavids promoted Persian culture and Shia Islam.
• The Ottoman Empire was a highly organized, absolutist, and bureaucratic state.
• The Ottoman ruling class was guided by four key principles: Gaza (Holy War), Islamic Civilization, Local Custom, and Division of Society.
• Ottoman society was divided into two main groups: Rulers (Askeris) and the Ruled (Reaya).
• The Ottomans implemented the millet system to manage the empire's religious diversity.
• The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the sultan, an absolute monarch.
• The Ottoman governance was organized through the devshirme method of recruiting and training slaves to serve in the military and bureaucracy.
• The Ottoman military was divided into two main branches: the Janissaries and the Sipahis.
• The ulama interpreted Sharia and maintained religious order (but were subordinate to the state).
• The millet system granted non-Muslim communities degree of autonomy.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire and Rise of Challenges

• The Ottoman Empire faced economic challenges due to European merchant capital penetration which led to Capitulations (commercial treaties).
• Capitulations became a tool for European economic dominance and military imbalance.
• The Safavid Empire’s establishment of Shiism in Iran created more religious conflict.
• The second siege of Vienna (1683) marked the empire's last major offensive in Europe.
• The Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699 forced the Ottomans to cede Hungary to the Habsburgs.
• Shah Ismail I declared Twelver Shi'ism the state religion of Iran and enforced through execution of Sunni scholars.
• Over time, Shi'ism became deeply embedded in Iranian culture.
• Shah Abbas I revitalized the Safavid Empire, reclaimed lost territories, and transformed Isfahan into magnificent capital

18th Century Transformation

• The Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire became a threat to the state in the 18th century and abandoned their traditional military roles.
• The Ottoman bureaucracy became riddled with nepotism and corruption, which decentralized power.
• The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) with Russia marked the beginning of Russia's influence over Ottoman Christian subjects.
• The Empire had to transition to keep up with technology.

Reforms and New Order

• Sultan Selim III (1789–1806) sought to modernize the armed forces on European lines which developed into broader changes.
• Selim's most ambitious reform was the creation of a new army, the Nizam-i Jedid (New Order).
• The Janissaries viewed the Nizam-i Jedid as a threat and resisted Selim's reforms and the Derebeys.
• Selim established permanent Ottoman embassies in European capitals.
• The Janissaries rebelled and dismantled the Nizam-i Jedid.
• Mahmud II rebuilt the Ottoman army along European lines and destroyed the Janissaries.
• By late 18th century, Egypt became semi-autonomous under the Mamluks, which were eventually expelled by British-Ottoman force.
• Muhammad Ali massacred the Mamluk leadership and built European-style schools.

British-Ottoman Alliances

• Muhammad Ali abolished the tax-farming system (iltizam) and the European powers defeated the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet.
• Greece gained independence and this set a negative precedent for future uprising against Empire.

Rise of Centralization

• Reassertion to the Sultans through dismantling, modern army and educational practices in the Ottoman Empire.

19th Century Egyptian

• The middle decades of the nineteenth century of Egypt had reforms beyond the military into administrative and political spheres driven by growing encroachment.

Tanzimat Era

• The Tanzimat (1839-1876) reformed administrative, legal, and educational systems and were codified under the Hatt-i Sharif of Gülhane (1839).

Economic Debt/Penetration

• Reforms brought vulnerability to the Ottoman Empire's economic sphere when European banks came in.

Young Ottomans/Patriotism

• They emerged and advocated for a more democratic government which helped lead to the Ottoman Constitution of 1876.

Burden Of Debt/Oppression

• The empire faced financial resources so the Ottomans had to turn to European financial markets leading to enormous debt.
• European powers intervened to protect their interests to collect higher revenues establishing the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in the process.

European Pressure

• Russia and Austria/Hungary created tensions that ultimately led to the Crimean war from 1854-1856.

Arab Provinces

• They were effected by modernization and had social political and economic changes after Muhammad Ali Pascha rose up.

Tanzimat

• Egypt had many Egyptian reformers.

European Influence

• Egypt's economy turned raw material heavy by the end.

European Tension

• Rise with Egypt is and government.

Ismails Vision

• He wanted Egypt to transform like Europe and created Educational Reforms by building more religious schools.

Loss of Sovereignty/Intervention

• Ismail agreed to establish many European influences.
• The 1880 Law of Liquidation formalized financial obligations.

Arabi Revolts

• The movement began as a protest within the military that was suppressed by European control.

The British

• The Revolt and aftermath were highlighted in the Dualism.

Revolution

• The British wanted to intervene in Egypt because of the canal.

Modernization

• People still wanted revolution after it calmed down.

British Take over

• The British officially occupied Egypt around this time who installed people in a dual administration which did not allow development in a lasting aspect.
• Khedre Abbas helped further the British authority.

Key Egyptian Concepts

• Egyptian Nationalists and the Dinshaway Incident started which hurt the British.

Response/Outbreak

• After the British took over WW1 hit and that was that.

Iran

• Iran faces changes different than Egypt.
• Nassir helped with different problems in key areas and was not a sustainable system.

Weak Authority

• There was weak administrative strength at the time.

Influences/Outsiders

They could work for the Shi to give political support. Then the economy was being challenged with Tobacco protest etc.

European tensions

There was strife in the region.

Al Afgani

It did not lie there because there was failure to have a clear view to the people and they turned there support away.

The vision

• Key people took control in the middle east from 1826 to today to stop people from taking control, people tried to stop it.

Early 1900s

Ottoman Empire began to decline even more, as seen in the Balkan wars.

The revolution

The Qadir family rose up and signed deals with Anglo Russia.

Ideologies

A key ideology came about to change parts of the region at this time.

Reforms

Many took place in the region to push for independence.