Podcast
Questions and Answers
What genetic phenomenon involves three or more alleles for a specific gene?
What genetic phenomenon involves three or more alleles for a specific gene?
Which genetic concept describes the distinct expression of both alleles without any blending or intermediate phenotype?
Which genetic concept describes the distinct expression of both alleles without any blending or intermediate phenotype?
In which genetic phenomenon do both alleles for a trait get fully expressed in the heterozygous phenotype?
In which genetic phenomenon do both alleles for a trait get fully expressed in the heterozygous phenotype?
How does Incomplete Dominance differ from complete dominance?
How does Incomplete Dominance differ from complete dominance?
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Which area applies Mendelian genetics principles to selectively breed organisms with desired traits?
Which area applies Mendelian genetics principles to selectively breed organisms with desired traits?
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Where are non-Mendelian genetics principles crucial for understanding complex traits and diseases?
Where are non-Mendelian genetics principles crucial for understanding complex traits and diseases?
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What is responsible for shining light on the object on the slide?
What is responsible for shining light on the object on the slide?
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How is magnification calculated in a microscope?
How is magnification calculated in a microscope?
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What is the main characteristic that distinguishes prokaryotes from eukaryotes?
What is the main characteristic that distinguishes prokaryotes from eukaryotes?
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Where is the DNA found in prokaryotic cells?
Where is the DNA found in prokaryotic cells?
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What size range do prokaryotic cells typically fall within?
What size range do prokaryotic cells typically fall within?
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What is the key difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
What is the key difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
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What is the function of the cell wall in prokaryotic cells?
What is the function of the cell wall in prokaryotic cells?
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Which of the following is not a characteristic of eukaryotic cells?
Which of the following is not a characteristic of eukaryotic cells?
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What is the primary function of the mitochondria in a eukaryotic cell?
What is the primary function of the mitochondria in a eukaryotic cell?
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What is the role of the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell?
What is the role of the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell?
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Which of the following is not a characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
Which of the following is not a characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
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What is the primary function of the ribosomes in a cell?
What is the primary function of the ribosomes in a cell?
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Which of the following is not a type of plastid found in plant cells?
Which of the following is not a type of plastid found in plant cells?
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What is the function of the cell membrane in a cell?
What is the function of the cell membrane in a cell?
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What is the role of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell?
What is the role of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell?
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What is the composition of RNA nucleotides in terms of sugar compared to DNA nucleotides?
What is the composition of RNA nucleotides in terms of sugar compared to DNA nucleotides?
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During which stage of protein synthesis does RNA polymerase bind to the DNA and synthesize mRNA?
During which stage of protein synthesis does RNA polymerase bind to the DNA and synthesize mRNA?
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What is the stop codon that signals the end of protein synthesis on the mRNA molecule?
What is the stop codon that signals the end of protein synthesis on the mRNA molecule?
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Which component of a cell catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids during translation?
Which component of a cell catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids during translation?
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In which cellular location does protein synthesis take place in eukaryotic cells?
In which cellular location does protein synthesis take place in eukaryotic cells?
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What is the main difference between termination in DNA replication and termination in protein synthesis?
What is the main difference between termination in DNA replication and termination in protein synthesis?
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What type of transport mechanism involves the movement of particles from high to low concentrations without the input of energy?
What type of transport mechanism involves the movement of particles from high to low concentrations without the input of energy?
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Which type of protein serves as gateways for facilitating the transport of amino acids and glucose?
Which type of protein serves as gateways for facilitating the transport of amino acids and glucose?
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What type of transport mechanism requires the use of stored energy to move molecules across the cell membrane?
What type of transport mechanism requires the use of stored energy to move molecules across the cell membrane?
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Which type of proteins are attached only on the surface of the cell membrane and act as receptors for hormones and recognition centers?
Which type of proteins are attached only on the surface of the cell membrane and act as receptors for hormones and recognition centers?
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What determines the movement of water in osmosis across a semipermeable membrane?
What determines the movement of water in osmosis across a semipermeable membrane?
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Which type of transport mechanism involves moving different molecules simultaneously in the same direction?
Which type of transport mechanism involves moving different molecules simultaneously in the same direction?
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Study Notes
DNA Replication
- Replication continues until the entire DNA molecule is copied, ending when replication forks meet or the process reaches the end of the DNA strand
Protein Synthesis
- Process by which cells build proteins, essential molecules for various biological functions
- Takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells
- RNA polymerase binds to the DNA and synthesizes a complementary mRNA (messenger RNA)
RNA Structure
- Single-stranded structure, no helix formed
- Composed of nucleotides, with ribose instead of deoxyribose
- Four bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and uracil
Transcription
- First stage of protein synthesis
- RNA polymerase binds to the DNA and synthesizes a complementary mRNA (messenger RNA)
Translation
- Second stage of protein synthesis
- mRNA exits the nucleus into the cytoplasm and binds to a ribosome
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid, recognize and bind to the mRNA codons
- Ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids, forming a polypeptide chain
Codon
- Makes up mRNA
Genetic Engineering
- Process by which genes are altered and DNA is transferred to another organism
- Results in a phenotype that shows the distinct expression of both alleles without any blending or intermediate phenotype
Incomplete Dominance
- Dominant allele fails to mask the recessive allele completely
- Offspring does not resemble either parent
Codominance
- Both alleles for a trait are fully expressed in the heterozygous phenotype
- Neither allele is dominant or recessive to the other
Multiple Alleles
- Presence of more than two different forms of a gene (alleles) at a particular locus (position) on a chromosome within a population
Application of Mendelian Genetics
- Selective Breeding: Mendelian genetics principles applied in agriculture and animal husbandry to selectively breed organisms with desired traits
- Medical Genetics: Mendelian genetics applied to understand the inheritance of genetic disorders
Application of Non-Mendelian Genetics
- Complex Traits: Non-Mendelian genetics plays a crucial role in understanding complex traits and diseases that involve multiple genes and environmental factors
- Population Genetics: Non-Mendelian genetics principles applied to study genetic variation within and between populations
Microscopy
- Base: Support for microscope
- Magnification: Multiply the eyepiece magnification (10X) by the objective magnification (4X, 10X, 40X)
- How to use a microscope:
- Place the slide on the stage
- Use stage clips to secure slide
- Adjust nosepiece to lowest setting (Lowest = shortest objective)
- Look into eyepiece
- Use coarse focus knob
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Prokaryotes:
- “Pro” means before nucleus
- Nucleoid: central open part of the cell where the DNA is found
- 1-10 microns
- Unicellular, include kingdom Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
- Single loop if stable chromosomes
- Semi-rigid cell wall is present, but membrane-bound organelles with specialized functions are absent
- Eukaryotes:
- Unicellular/multicellular, have nucleus
- Composed of membrane-bound organelles (Cytoskeleton, Mitochondria, Cell membrane, nucleus, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, and etc.)
- Include kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia
- Larger in size compared to prokaryotes (but still microscopic)
- Reproduce sexually or asexually
- Nucleus contains the cell’s DNA
Cell Organelles and Organization
- Protoplasm: Mixture of compounds forming a jellylike substance where the nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane are located
- Suspended in the protoplasm are the organelles acting like little organs that carry out specific functions
- Organelles:
- Cell Membrane: composed of phospholipids and proteins, provides a barrier between the internal and external environment of the cell
- Cytoplasm: Eukaryotes - everything within the cell outside the nucleus; Prokaryotes - everything contained inside the cell membrane
- Cytosol: Major part of the cytoplasm; site of the cell’s metabolic processes, including protein synthesis; Gel-like
Organelles for Protection
- Cell Membrane: helps the cell communicate with other cells (cell-to-cell interaction)
- Cell Wall: surrounds the cells of plants, fungi, bacteria, and some protozoans, making them rigid; made up of cellulose and chitin and other proteins
Organelles for Energy Processing
- Mitochondria: Small double-membraned and spherical or sausage-shaped organelles; produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP); powerhouse of the cell
- Plastids:
- Chloroplasts: most common plastids found in green plants; trap energy from the sun during photosynthesis
- Chromoplasts: give yellow and orange colors to flowers and fruits
- Leucoplasts: Colorless plastids; store carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
Organelles for Manufacturing Products
- Ribosomes: small granular structures that are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins; produce proteins from RNA
- Endoplasmic Reticulum: a membranous structure that forms a network of canals through which proteins and other molecules are transported
Transport Mechanism
- Concentration Gradient: stored energy that drives movement of particles from high to low concentrations in diffusion
Type of Transport Mechanism
- Passive Transport (Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion)
- Active Transport (Sodium-Potassium, Bulk Transport)
Passive Transport
- Diffusion: occurs when solutes or solvents move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration without energy
- Factors that affect Diffusion:
- Temperature: Rate of the diffusion increases
- Pressure: Rate of diffusion decreases
- Size: Rate of diffusion decreases
- Viscosity: Rate of diffusion decreases
- Osmosis: diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane; moves from high concentration to low concentration
- Facilitated Diffusion: amino acids and glucose cannot pass through the lipid bilayer; integral proteins serve as gateways for facilitating their transport
- Channel Proteins: allows the passage of molecules of appropriate size and shape
- Carrier Proteins: changes shape to accommodate sugars, amino acids, and nucleosides
Application of Osmosis and Diffusion
- Dialysis and Dialyser: ensures that the regions inside and outside of the body have a balanced amount of fluids
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Description
Test your knowledge on using a microscope and understanding cell structures such as prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Learn about magnification, adjusting the microscope, and the basic components of cells.
