Michael Schulman: Internet & Fan Communities
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Questions and Answers

According to Michael Schulman, how has the internet most significantly impacted fan communities?

  • By limiting fan expression to officially sanctioned platforms.
  • By creating a divide between fans and creators due to increased anonymity.
  • By shifting focus from collective enthusiasm to individual recognition.
  • By providing a global platform for connection, amplifying voices and enabling coordinated action. (correct)

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies the 'dual nature of fandom' as described by Schulman?

  • A group of fans collectively funds the production of fan fiction, leading to increased sales of the established series.
  • A fan group meticulously catalogs every detail of a series, creating an extensive online wiki resource but failing to engage in discussions with the creators.
  • A fan community organizes a successful charity event, while simultaneously campaigning for a director to be removed from a project due to creative differences. (correct)
  • A community of fans consistently praises a show, leading to higher ratings and renewal for multiple seasons.

What is a key challenge or tension that Schulman identifies within fan communities?

  • The difficulty in maintaining consistent levels of enthusiasm over extended periods.
  • Balancing passionate advocacy with the risk of disruptive or toxic behavior. (correct)
  • The need to moderate views to avoid offending the creators.
  • The struggle to gain mainstream recognition and acceptance of fan activities.

How has the dynamic between creators and audiences changed in the digital age, according to Schulman's analysis?

<p>The relationship has become more interactive, with fans having increased opportunities to influence media content and narratives. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the below options is the best example of fan empowerment?

<p>Fans successfully lobbying for a change in a character's storyline that aligns with their preferences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a showrunner alters a major plot point in response to organized fan feedback, which of Schulman's key themes does this exemplify?

<p>Fan empowerment and industry response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do Schulman's case studies primarily function within his broader analysis of fandom?

<p>To illustrate both the collaborative and contentious interactions between fans and creators. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which action would be an example of tangible power that organised fan communities wield in the entertainment industry?

<p>Reviving a cancelled show through coordinated campaigns. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which approach emphasizes personal interpretation in understanding audience interactions with media?

<p>Humanist methods (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How has the rise of user-generated content impacted the role of fans in the media landscape?

<p>Fans have transitioned from being solely consumers to active contributors, influencing cultural trends and media narratives. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Stuart Hall, what role does culture play in audience studies?

<p>A space for meaning-making, influencing the cultural politics of belonging (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern raised by Sonia Livingstone regarding datafication in media research?

<p>The ethical implications of collecting and analyzing audience data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key challenge media producers face regarding fan expectations in the digital age?

<p>Balancing creative vision with fan expectations, requiring them to navigate collaborative and potentially contentious creation processes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of audience studies, what does the shift from passive consumers to active 'prosumers' indicate?

<p>Audiences actively engage with, negotiate, and reshape media content (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does Michael Z. Newman's perspective challenge traditional views of media consumption?

<p>He argues that audiences actively engage with media to derive meaning, challenging the notion of passive consumption. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of understanding the 'active interpretation' of media?

<p>It helps in understanding how content is created and received, impacting both media production and audience experiences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which causal relationship model suggests that media reinforces existing societal structures?

<p>Reinforcement model (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Stuart Hall's model of 'dominant,' 'oppositional,' and 'negotiated' readings contribute to understanding audience interpretation?

<p>It emphasizes that audience interpretation is influenced by individual backgrounds, experiences, and social contexts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does fragmentation impact audience engagement in the digital media landscape?

<p>It presents challenges in rethinking traditional models of audience engagement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does James Carey's concept of communication as both 'transmission' and 'ritual' suggest about the social function of media?

<p>Media reinforces social connections and cultural practices, besides conveying information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'audience autonomy' refer to in the contemporary media environment?

<p>The unprecedented level of control audiences have over what, when, where, and how they consume media (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two interrelated components of fragmentation in the media environment?

<p>Inter-media fragmentation and intra-media fragmentation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Hermes and Kopitz, how does identity relate to audience engagement with media?

<p>Audiences' identities inform their engagements with content, and media representations can shape their identities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the notion of 'cultural citizenship' emphasize within media contexts?

<p>The political dimensions of belonging and identity, impacting social dynamics and audience perceptions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the 'education model' in the context of causal relationships in media studies?

<p>Media watching occurs as cultural learning and/or frustration (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Terms such as “prosumers” and “produage” capture which phenomenon?

<p>Content production and distribution are migrating beyond the traditional industrial paradigm (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do structured group activities, like synthesizing findings and creating cluster maps, enhance the learning experience?

<p>They promote collaborative learning, deepen understanding, and foster a community of learners. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Newman, why is media an important topic of study?

<p>Because it contributes to shaping the world we live in. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which causal relationship suggests that individual responses to media are shaped by contextual, personal differences?

<p>Mediation model (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key aspect of the 'Power model' in understanding the relationship between individuals and media?

<p>Media's influence is overwhelming, insisting on its influence and fascination (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the economic impact of fan conventions and related events, according to the text?

<p>They are significant economic drivers, reflecting the market power of dedicated fanbases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How has digital connectivity reshaped the landscape of fandom?

<p>It has empowered fans while also presenting new challenges for creators and communities alike. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of intra-media fragmentation?

<p>The subdivision of choices within particular media technologies (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the focus of empirical methods in audience studies versus humanist methods?

<p>Empirical methods focus on observable evidence, while humanist methods focus on personal interpretation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ferdinand de Saussure posits a difference between 'langue' and 'parole'. What do these terms refer to respectively?

<p>Language as a formal system and language as spoken (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Michel Foucault, what are the two components of 'subjectivity'?

<p>Subjection to systems and the feeling of being a subject (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In ad-supported media, what typically happens to the revenue distribution between 'hits' and niche-content options?

<p>The 'hits' attract a disproportionately high share of advertising dollars, leaving less for niche content. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant consideration for the media business regarding audiences?

<p>A critical mass of affluent adults. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lazarsfeld and Merton, advertising is most effective when:

<p>It amplifies and redirects an existing behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Stuart Hall, which mode of reading involves the audience member challenging the intended message of the media?

<p>Oppositional reading (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of a 'prosumer'?

<p>Someone who both produces and consumes media content. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following methodologies involves immersive research, such as autoethnography and netnography?

<p>Ethnography (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Joke Hermes and Linda Kopitz, what is the greatest challenge in data analysis?

<p>Allowing the data to tell its own story. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Livingstone suggest is eclipsed as attention is drawn to the analysis of media power?

<p>The study of audiences (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of data collection for audience research, what does 'saturation' refer to?

<p>The point at which new data no longer provides additional insights. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Chris Anderson's 'long tail' model?

<p>Digital media allows for niche content to find an audience. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Adorno and Horkheimer, how do audiences relate to mass media?

<p>Audiences are passive consumers, helpless against media's power. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do Hermes and Kopitz mean by 'killing your darlings' in the context of audience research?

<p>Eliminating unnecessary elements that impede the overall research narrative. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three conditions that, according to the text, must be met to change attitudes?

<p>Monopolization, canalization, and supplementary face-to-face contact. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of James Carey's communication models focuses on communication as a social bonding process?

<p>Ritual Model (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lasswell's model of communication includes which of the following elements?

<p>Who, says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does media fragmentation refer to?

<p>The division of audience attention across a wide range of media channels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of understanding the etymology of the word 'audience'?

<p>It emphasizes listening as a key component of media engagement. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of contextualizing data within broader frameworks after initial coding and clustering?

<p>To connect findings to existing research, analyze social structures, and test emerging theories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of contradictions found within qualitative data?

<p>They expose deeper social and cultural meanings, highlighting complexities in participant perspectives. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the historical trend in media studies regarding audience research?

<p>A historical neglect of audience agency in favor of studying media power and effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did empirical analysis reveal regarding the 'War of the Worlds' broadcast, according to Pooley and Socolow (2013)?

<p>Most listeners engaged in some form of critical evaluation of the broadcast. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How should researchers approach the process of theorizing qualitative data, according to the text?

<p>By exploring contradictions, using direct quotes, and considering comprehensive implications. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the study of women’s magazines by Joke Hermes reveal about the magazines' role in readers' lives?

<p>They function ideologically by presenting ways for readers to imagine ideal versions of themselves. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of ethnographic research, why is it important to consider it as a 'toolbox'?

<p>To encourage researchers to adapt and select methods based on the research context. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher is conducting online ethnographic research. Which ethical consideration is particularly important in this context?

<p>Obtaining informed consent and ensuring anonymity of usernames. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Annette Hill's work on reality TV and news contribute to the understanding of audience engagement with media?

<p>It examines how audiences manage the tension between their desire for factual information and the understanding that media is constructed. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is authenticity emphasized in ethnographic research?

<p>To maintain credibility and gain the trust of participants. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should researchers do to validate their theory, according to the provided content?

<p>Compare with existing research and consider the transferability of findings to other contexts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do online and offline ethnographic settings interact and influence each other in contemporary media research?

<p>They intersect dynamically, shaping media consumption and discussions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key message about qualitative research in the concluding paragraph?

<p>It explores multiple meanings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Richards & Richards study of neighborliness, what contradiction was identified?

<p>Neighbors were ideally available but distant. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key limitation of using focus groups in ethnographic research?

<p>They might be ineffective for personal topics due to social dynamics. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does considering the broader social or ideological implications contribute to the theorizing process?

<p>It reveals hidden patterns and underlying societal and cultural dynamics. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher is planning to study the impact of a controversial media campaign on a vulnerable population. What 'aftercare' considerations should they take into account?

<p>Providing follow-up support and resources to participants after data collection. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mariam Yassein's research on hijabi representation in 'Élite' combines which two ethnographic methods?

<p>Auto-ethnography and netnography. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical step researchers should take when theorizing in response to contradictory data?

<p>Using direct quotes from interviews to keep theory grounded in the data. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of audience research, what is the significance of Stuart Hall and the Birmingham School?

<p>They brought new attention to audience activity and engagement. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can a researcher ethically navigate gaining access to a particular online community for ethnographic research?

<p>By leveraging personal networks and being authentic to build trust. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher wants to investigate how users of a TV show forum on Reddit engage with the program's plot twists. Which ethnographic method would be most suitable?

<p>Participant observation within the Reddit forum. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between traditional ethnography and contemporary digital ethnography?

<p>Digital ethnography includes the study of online practices and behaviors, while traditional ethnography primarily focuses on offline interactions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher is analyzing audience reactions to a political debate on Twitter. Which of the following methods would be MOST appropriate for this task?

<p>Netnography, observing and analyzing the online community's discussions and sentiments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher discovers during a study of an online support group that participants are sharing highly sensitive personal information. What ethical responsibility does the researcher have regarding this data?

<p>To store the data securely, ensure anonymity, and consider the need for aftercare. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In ethnographic research, what is the significance of acknowledging contradictory viewpoints within a community?

<p>It enriches the research by capturing the complexity and nuances of the community. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is reflexivity considered essential in ethnographic research?

<p>It acknowledges the researcher's influence on the community and data collected. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'assemblage' influence the understanding of media in research?

<p>It emphasizes the flexible and evolving mix of elements that form media. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Stuart Hall’s Encoding/Decoding model, what role does the audience play in interpreting media?

<p>Audiences can have varied readings that accept, negotiate, or challenge the intended meaning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does collaborative analysis enhance media research?

<p>It reveals contradictions and multiple meanings in media by combining different methods. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does media ethnography entail in the immersive study of people and their everyday practices?

<p>Examining people's media use within the context of their daily lives. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'affect' contribute to understanding our engagement with media?

<p>It highlights the sensory and emotional experiences that shape our connection to media. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of visual analysis, how do primary, secondary, and tertiary texts interact to produce meaning?

<p>They collaborate, each contributing to the overall interpretation and understanding. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why should researchers be cautious about assuming authority over audience interpretations in media analysis?

<p>To allow for a comprehensive consideration of viewers' subjective experiences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Crime drama 'The Mentalist' example demonstrate about media text interpretation?

<p>That different perspectives and repeated viewing reveal new layers of meaning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes media ethnography from traditional ethnographic research?

<p>Media ethnography includes engagement with and analysis of media as part of cultural and social life. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does understanding 'affect' enhance the study of media in charged contexts, such as sports events or intense dramas?

<p>It illuminates how personal emotional responses intersect with on-screen actions, shaping the viewing experience. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the 'Sensing Without Thinking' exercise in media research?

<p>To reflect on sensory experiences before applying critical analysis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes ethnography as an iterative and interactive process of knowledge creation?

<p>Its knowledge, emerging through, frequent repetition, personal experiences, interactions with, and engagement with media. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does textual analysis differ from visual analysis in the context of media studies related to this reading?

<p>Visual and textual analysis are interchangeable, but text leans toward discourse and visual leans toward aesthetics. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of advertising, what does the 'sensorial turn' primarily emphasize?

<p>The strategic focus on triggering emotional and sensory experiences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can visual analysis of advertisements contribute to promoting inclusivity?

<p>By uncovering biases and underrepresentation in marketing materials. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might a researcher choose to create visual media as part of their research process?

<p>To gain deeper insights into media issues through active participation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is embracing contradictory opinions from audience members important in media research?

<p>It showcases the complex and multifaceted nature of audience interpretation and contextual understanding. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is qualitative research often preferred over quantitative research when studying media practices?

<p>Qualitative research is adept at constructing new theories about society. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of context in media research?

<p>Context helps in understanding how media connects to culture and real-world experiences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should researchers aim to be when analyzing media?

<p>A detective who follows clues of meaning-making, seeking a bigger picture. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does 'open coding' contribute to the analysis of interview data?

<p>It breaks down interview content into smaller segments for theme identification. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'clustering' involve in the process of lateral summarizing?

<p>Grouping similar codes together after identifying key codes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the 'labeling' stage, what should researchers focus on when assigning labels to clusters of codes?

<p>Creating clear and meaningful labels that reflect the cluster's essence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are advertisements increasingly designed in the 'sensorial turn'?

<p>To trigger sensory experiences that connect with consumers emotionally. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of advertising analysis, what can visual analysis reveal regarding inclusion and exclusion?

<p>The presence of biases and underrepresentation in depicted groups. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does creating visual media aid a researcher's understanding of media issues?

<p>It deepens their understanding through active participation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initial action signals the start of theory building in qualitative research?

<p>Recognizing that interpretation begins as soon as data analysis starts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary aim of the 'Focusing and Funneling through Lateral Summarizing' approach?

<p>To move horizontally across data identifying similarities and contradictions for a broader understanding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does societal change relate to individual actions in shaping media experiences?

<p>Societal change can only occur if it begins at the individual level. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'third-person effect' in the context of mass media?

<p>The tendency to believe mass media has stronger effects on others than on oneself. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In media reception theory, what term describes an audience member who completely rejects the preferred meanings encoded in a text?

<p>Oppositional reader (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Ferdinand de Saussure, what is the distinction between 'langue' and 'parole'?

<p>'Langue' refers to language as a formal system, while 'parole' is language as spoken. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Michel Foucault's concept of 'subjectivity' includes which two elements?

<p>Subjection to systems and feeling like a central 'subject' (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'governmentality' address?

<p>How power operates as a subtle pressure to conform (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Stuart Hall, what is the 'cultural circuit'?

<p>The link between everyday meaning-making and how societies function (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stuart Hall described different ways to understand representation. Which of the following is NOT one of them?

<p>Reception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'cultural citizenship' primarily refer to?

<p>Belonging, rights, and responsibilities within a cultural context (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the readings define modern audiences in relation to content creation and consumption?

<p>As 'prosumers' who both create and consume content (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cecilia von Feilitzen proposes four casual relations people have with media including the Education Model. How is the individuals positioned?

<p>Individuals as passive recipients of knowledge. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Adorno and Horkheimer propose a power model of communication. What is the position of audiences?

<p>Audiences are consumers who are helpless in the face of mass media. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Early audience studies primarily focused on film. Why?

<p>Film was the dominant mass media for a period of time. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the readings, how are identity and media connected?

<p>Media can shape cultural identities through representation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Sonia Livingstone known for in the context of audience studies?

<p>Her work demonstrates critical questions about datafication and ethical collections of audience data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Superfans: A Love Story

The evolution of fan communities and their impact on popular culture.

Historical Context of Fandom

Fan communities have existed as hubs for enthusiasm and creativity.

Internet's Role in Uniting Fans

Fans connect globally, amplifying their ability to coordinate campaigns and influence media.

Fan Empowerment

Fans can successfully lobby for changes in media and influence creators.

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Empowerment Through Digital Platforms

Enthusiasts directly connect with creators, influencing content and changing from passive consumers into active participants.

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Dual Nature of Fandom

Fan communities offer support, but can include harassment.

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Challenges Within Fandoms

Toxic behaviors and entitlement exist within fan communities.

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Case Studies of Fan Impact

Fan actions have led to changes in media production.

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Fan Contribution

Fans actively contribute to culture, creating fan fiction and art.

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Economic Impact of Fandom

Fan gatherings boost local economies through spending on events and merchandise.

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Producers vs. Fan Expectations

Balancing their artistic vision with what fans want and expect.

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Active Audience

Audiences actively make meaning from media, not just passively receive it.

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Diverse Audience Terms

Terms describing audiences (readers, listeners, spectators) imply different interactions.

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Interpretive Frameworks

Audiences interpret media in dominant, oppositional, or negotiated ways.

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Communication as Ritual

Media consumption reinforces social connections and cultural practices.

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Identity Construction

Identity shaped by social roles, personal performance, and others' perceptions.

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Cultural Citizenship

Examines how media includes or excludes groups, affecting their sense of belonging.

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Collaborative Learning

Learning together to deepen understanding and build a community.

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Michael Z. Newman

Argues audiences actively engage with media to derive meaning.

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Stuart Hall

Model of dominant, oppositional, and negotiated readings helps understanding varied media interpretations.

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Target Audience

Affluent adults are crucial for media business, often prioritized over larger but less wealthy audiences.

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James Carey

Views communication as both conveying information (transmission) and reinforcing social connections (ritual).

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Audience Engagement

How audiences use media, enjoy it, create meaning, and allow it to shape social life.

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Third-Person Effect

The idea that mass media affects others more than ourselves.

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Oppositional Reading

Rejecting the preferred meanings in media.

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Negotiated Reading

A middle ground between accepting and rejecting media meanings.

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Agency (in language)

Control over language; partly have, partly don't.

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Langue

Language as a formal system.

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Parole

Talk, or language as spoken.

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Subjectivity

How we are subjected to systems and feel like the world turns around us

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Governmentality

Power that pressures us to conform.

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Cultural Circuit

Link between meaning-making, identity and how societies function.

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Representation as Reflection

Words imitating true meaning.

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Representation as Intention

Writer's or director's intended message.

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Representation as Construction

Making sense of reality via languages.

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Prosumers

Modern audiences who both create & consume content.

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Reinforcement Thesis

Media reflects & maintains social order.

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Behavioral Researchers

Researchers who study the behavior of individuals or groups

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Lasswell's Communication Model

Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect

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Five Types of Communication Analysis

Control, content, media, audience, and effect analysis

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Conditions to Change Attitudes

Monopolization, canalization, and supplementary face-to-face contact

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Advertising's Primary Function

Advertising alters specific preferences related to existing behavior

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Individual Media Reception

Individuals' characteristics and attitudes shape media influence

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Power Model of Communication

Audiences are helpless consumers manipulated by mass media

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Audience Interpretation

Audiences interpret media differently

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Dominant Reading

Accepting the intended meaning

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Netnography

Ethnography conducted online

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Data Saturation

Knowing when your research is thorough

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The "Long Tail"

Media consumption and distribution in digital age

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Audience Autonomy

The concept of audiences gaining significant control over media consumption, including what, when, where, and how they consume it.

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Media Fragmentation

The expansion of media choices (media fragmentation) and the division of audiences across these choices (audience fragmentation).

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Media Fragmentation

Technical advancements increasing the variety of content options for media consumers.

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Inter-media fragmentation

Growth of new platforms delivering media content.

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Intra-media fragmentation

Subdivision of choices within a specific media technology.

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Education Model

One-way transmission of knowledge where media directly educates the audience

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Reinforcement Model

Media reflects and reinforces existing cultural and societal norms, maintaining social order.

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Mediation Model

Audience responses are shaped by individual experiences, using media for mediated access to the world.

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Power Model

Media has an overwhelming influence on individuals, impacting their agency and captivating their attention.

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Empirical Methodology

Focuses on observable, quantifiable data to understand audience behavior.

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Humanist Methodology

Emphasizes personal interpretation and subjective experiences in understanding audience engagement with media.

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Impact of Datafication

Highlights questions about the ethical implications and the collection and analysis of audience data.

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Media Audience Neglect

The agency and attentiveness of media audiences are often overlooked in media studies, especially when analyzing media power.

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Myth of War of the Worlds

The idea that a radio broadcast of "War of the Worlds" caused widespread panic, which empirical analysis disproved.

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Ethnography Definition

Studying people's behaviors, cultures, and practices in their natural settings primarily through observation and participation.

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Ethnography as a 'Toolbox'

The adaptation and flexible use of various qualitative research methods, suited to the specific research context, including observations, interviews, and auto-ethnography.

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Ethics in Ethnography

Gaining informed consent, ensuring anonymity, and protecting participants' physical, technological, and emotional safety during research.

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Access and Authenticity

Requires carefully navigating access to participants, while maintaining genuine interactions to gain trust and avoid misrepresenting oneself.

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Online and Offline Ethnography

Contemporary ethnography includes digital spaces (netnography, digital ethnography), acknowledging the intersection of online and offline behaviors.

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Participant Observation

Involves researchers actively engaging in the community they're studying.

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Auto-ethnography

Researchers reflecting on their own personal experiences as part of the study.

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Interviews & Focus Groups

Gathering insights from participants, with focus groups being interview-based group discussions.

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Institutional Approval

Researchers should obtain approval from ethics boards, adhere to privacy laws, and secure data with formal consent.

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Data Storage & Consent

Researchers must ensure data is securely stored and that they obtain formal consent from participants, guaranteeing anonymity in resulting publications.

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Aftercare

Providing appropriate support for participants, especially regarding sensitive or personal data.

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Research Example: 'Élite'

Mariam combined netnography and auto-ethnography in her research of how a muslim character in the show Elite was portrayed, and related it to her experiences as a hijabi herself.

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Diversity of Opinion

Opinions can greatly differ, even within the same cultural or religious group, leading to internal debates and diverse viewpoints.

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Handling Contradictory Responses

Researchers must understand that communities can have multiple, sometimes contradictory, viewpoints.

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Reflexivity

Researchers acknowledge how their own position and relationship with participants can influence data and findings.

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Ethnographic Tools

Observation, participant observation, netnography, auto-ethnography, interview/long interview, focus group, media discourse analysis.

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Texts

Media (films, books), related materials (reviews, trailers), and audience conversations all contribute to meaning.

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Audience and Text Interaction

Meaning is co-constructed by the text and the audience's experiences.

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Assemblage

Describes how media is formed through a shifting mix of technologies, people, and meanings.

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Active Audience Interpretation

Highlights audience role in interpreting; viewers accept, negotiate, or challenge a media's intended meaning.

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Collaborative Analysis

Combines visual analysis with audience feedback to uncover multiple meanings in a media text, valuing collective knowledge

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Media Ethnography

Iterative, interactive process of knowledge creation involving personal experiences, interactions, and media engagement.

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Affect and Sensory Engagement

Media influences our senses and emotions, shaping our attachment through physical and emotional experiences.

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The Role of Affect in Media

Media's power is evident in immediate, bodily responses like cheering or reacting to intense scenes.

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Sensing Without Thinking

Reflect on sensory experiences without immediate analysis, focusing on images, characters, and feelings from memory.

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Interchangeable Analysis Methods

Visual and Textual Analysis.

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Contextualizing Data

Linking research findings to existing knowledge and broader social contexts.

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Actuality vs. Performance

Examining the tension between 'real' events and their media representation.

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Data Contradictions

Statements that appear conflicting but reveal deeper insights.

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Ideological Function

Magazines serving to imagine idealized versions of oneself.

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Theorizing Data

Looking beyond surface-level to find deeper meanings and social implications.

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Complex Interpretations

Avoid oversimplified conclusions; explore complexities.

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Grounding Theory in Data

Support theory with interview excerpts.

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Social Implications

Examine broader impacts of findings.

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Transferability

Extending findings to other situations.

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Multiple Meanings

Qualitative research seeks many meanings, not one 'answer'.

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Advertising as Emotional Experience

Ads use sensory experiences to connect with consumers emotionally, influencing perceptions and behavior.

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Inclusion/Exclusion in Advertising

Visual analysis reveals patterns of inclusion/exclusion in media, prompting more inclusive marketing.

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Visual Media as Research

Creating visual media to explore and understand relationships with media issues, promoting deeper insights.

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Building Theory

Researchers build theories by interpreting data, connecting the data to a bigger cultural or social context.

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Qualities of a Good Researcher

Researchers should understand evolving meanings, remain open to new ideas, and engage ethically.

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Importance of Context

Understanding how media connects to other media and the surrounding culture.

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Open Coding Definition

Breaking interview data into small pieces to track recurring themes.

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Clustering Definition

Grouping similar codes together and reflect on the underlying meanings beyond the explicit words.

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Labeling Definition

Assigning clear labels to code clusters, forming the structure of emerging theory.

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Emotional Attachments

Examining personal, emotional connections to media to explain later interpretations.

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Lateral Summary

The process of organizing, interpreting, and summarizing interview to derive insights.

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Accounting for Subjectivity

Recognize that media interpretations are influenced by personal emotions and previous experiences

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Reinforcing Gender Roles

Reinforcing traditional caregiving roles through subtle role reinforcing.

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Embracing Contradictions

contradictory as an audience member showcases the unpacking of context and adds depth to study.

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Visual Media's Narratives

Visual media acts as cultural narratives within familiar context.

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Study Notes

  • Michael Schulman's "Superfans: A Love Story" analyzes the evolution of fandom and its significant effects on popular culture.
  • The book explores the internet's role in transforming fan communities by allowing them to connect, mobilize, and influence media.

Historical Context of Fandom

  • Modern fandom's roots trace back to the 1970s.
  • Fan communities have served as spaces for collective enthusiasm and creativity.

The Internet’s Role in Uniting Fans

  • The digital age has revolutionized fandom by providing a global platform for fans to connect.
  • This connectivity has amplified fan voices, allowing for coordinated campaigns and greater influence over media content.

Fan Empowerment and Industry Response

  • Fans have successfully lobbied for changes in media narratives, character developments, and the revival of cancelled shows.
  • This has led to a more interactive relationship between creators and audiences.

Empowerment through Digital Platforms

  • The internet has democratized fan engagement, allowing enthusiasts to connect directly with creators and influence content.
  • This has transformed passive consumers into active participants in the creative process.

The Dual Nature of Fandom

  • While fan communities offer support and belonging, incidents of harassment and aggressive behavior raise questions about fan influence and responsibilities.

Challenges and Tensions

  • Toxic behaviors and entitlement are potential downsides of fan engagement.
  • Passionate advocacy and disruptive conduct have a fine line within fan communities.

Case Studies Illustrating Fan Impact

  • Actions by fans have led to significant changes in media production.
  • Campaigns have altered storylines or revived cancelled shows, highlighting the power of organized fan communities in the entertainment industry.

Implications For Media and Culture: Democratization of Content Creation

  • Fan fiction, fan art, and other user-generated content demonstrate how fans contribute to the cultural landscape.

Economic Impact

  • Fan conventions and related events have become significant economic drivers, reflecting the market power of dedicated fanbases.
  • Media producers now face the challenge of balancing creative vision with fan expectations, leading to more collaborative creation processes.

Implications for Media Producers

  • Creators must navigate the balance between artistic vision and fan expectations.
  • Engaging with fan communities can lead to successes, but also requires managing differing opinions and potential conflicts.

Summary of "Superfans: A Love Story"

  • Offers a comprehensive exploration of how fandom has evolved from niche communities to powerful cultural influencers.
  • Examines how digital connectivity has reshaped the landscape of fandom, empowering fans while also presenting new challenges for creators and communities.

Key People

  • Michael Z. Newman argues that audiences actively engage with media to derive meaning, rather than being passive consumers.
  • Joke Hermes is known for her work in audience research, particularly in deeply mediatized societies.
  • Linda Kopitz focuses on reconceptualizing audience research for deeply mediatized societies.
  • Stuart Hall's model of "dominant," "oppositional," and "negotiated" readings provides a nuanced approach to understanding audience interpretation.
  • Ferdinand de Saussure posits a difference between ‘langue’ (language as a formal system) and ‘parole’ (language as spoken).
  • Michel Foucault offers “subjectivity” as consisting of two parts: how we are "subjected" to systems and how we feel we are "subjects" with the world revolving around us.
  • Sonia Livingstone's work on datafication raises critical questions about ethical considerations in collecting and analyzing audience data.
  • Janet Staiger selected material from "Social Scientific Theories"
  • Cecilia von Feilitzen describes four "basic" casual relations regarding human behavior and media.
  • Adorno and Horkheimer propose a power model where audiences are helpless consumers in the face of mass media.

Active Interpretation

  • Audiences actively engage with media to derive meaning.
  • This challenges traditional views of media consumption, highlighting cognitive engagement in shaping audience experiences.

Diverse Audience Concepts

  • Terms like readers, listeners, and spectators carry different implications for understanding audience interactions with media.
  • Audience studies must consider context and medium to understand audience engagement.

Interpretive Frameworks

  • Stuart Hall’s model emphasizes that audience interpretation is influenced by individual backgrounds, experiences, and social contexts.

Communication as Ritual

  • James Carey’s concept underlines the social function of media.
  • Media conveys information and reinforces social connections and cultural practices.

Identity Construction

  • Hermes and Kopitz view identity as an interplay of social roles, personal performance, and external perceptions.
  • Audiences' identities inform their engagements with content, and media representations shape audience identities.

Cultural Citizenship

  • Emphasizes the political dimensions of belonging and identity within media contexts.
  • Media representations can either include or marginalize certain groups, impacting social dynamics and audience perceptions.

Collaboration in Learning

  • Structured group activities promote collaborative learning and collective inquiry.
  • Students can deepen their understanding through synthesizing findings and creating cluster maps, enhancing education.

Newman, Audience

  • A critical mass of affluent adults often matters more to the media business as an audience.
  • Media helps shape the world we live in, impacting individuals within an audience.
  • Cultural background plays a role in shaping media experiences for audiences.
  • The "third-person effect" suggests that we believe mass media has stronger effects on others than on ourselves.
  • Oppositional readers reject preferred meanings.
  • Negotiated reading is a middle ground of interpretation.
  • Qualitative and interpretive research explores how audiences experience media and its impacts.

Hermes and Kopitz Reconceptualizing Audience Research

  • Qualitative audience research works with individuals or small groups.
  • Culture is a shared accomplishment.
  • Sociologists and researchers suggest that "agency" provides control over language, but also has limitations.
  • Ferdinand de Saussure distinguishes between ‘langue’ (language as a formal system) and ‘parole’ (talk, or language as spoken).
  • Michel Foucault offers "subjectivity" as consisting of how we are "subjected" to systems and how we feel the world revolves around us.
  • Governmentality addresses how power works as pressure to fall in line.
  • Meaning-making and identity formation are connected; culture is where they meet.
  • Stuart Hall called that link "the cultural circuit."
  • Stuart Hall distinguished between three ways to understand representation: reflection, intention, and construction.
  • Cultural citizenship refers to belonging, with rights and responsibilities within a “cultural” context.

Historical Context of Audience Studies: Cinema-Centric Approach

  • Early audience studies focused on film because it was the dominant mass medium for the first 30 years.
  • Other media gained prominence over time.
  • Theories apply broadly to mass communication and media, despite cinema references.

Key Readings & Their Relevance

  • Sager’s work covers audience studies from the 1990s and early 2000s but doesn't fully integrate digital media influence.
  • Napoli’s work brings audience studies into the internet age and provides an updated framework for understanding digital audience engagement.

Napoli Transformation of Media Consumption

  • Audience autonomy refers to the control audiences have over what, when, where, and how they consume media.
  • The extent to which audiences can contribute to the media environment is increasing.
  • Fragmentation in the media environment involves media and audience fragmentation.
  • Media fragmentation refers to technological processes that increase content options.
  • Inter-media fragmentation involves the growth of new delivery platforms.
  • Intra-media fragmentation refers to subdividing choices within particular media technologies.
  • The "hits" attract a disproportionately high share of advertising dollars.
  • Terms like "prosumers" and "produage" capture the ways in which the media audience is evolving.

Von Feilitzen's Casual Relations

  • Watching media occurs as "cultural learning and/or frustration" (education model).
  • Media reflect culture/society and may maintain social order (reinforcement thesis).
  • Individuals respond to the world based on personal differences and use media as mediated access (mediation model).
  • Individuals may have self-resources, yet media are overwhelming and insist on influence/fascination (power).
  • Four "founding fathers" were Lazarsfeld, Kurt Lewin, Harold Lasswell, and Carl Hovland, who were behavioral researchers.

Lasswell's Communication Process

  • (1) who (2) says what (3) in which channel (4) to whom (5) with what effect.
  • This produces corresponding analyses: (1) control, (2) content, (3) media, (4) audience, and (5) effect.
  • To change attitudes, three conditions must be met: monopolization, canalization, supplementary face-to-face contact.
  • Lazarsfeld and Merton note that advertising works in situations where general behavior exists, altering specific preferences.
  • Individuals come to media with characteristics/attitudes; media might reproduce/facilitate what they already are.
  • Adorno and Horkheimer propose a power model where audiences are helpless consumers.

Etymology of Audience & Media Reception

  • "Audience" is related to hearing/listening, not seeing.
  • Western culture prioritizes visual; media audiences also engage through listening.

Why Study Audiences?

  • To understand how people socialize, form communities, and interact through media.
  • To understand how audience consumption patterns help explain industry trends.

Prosumers & Media Creation

  • Prosumer = Producer + Consumer.
  • Content creators are both media producers and consumers.
  • Audience members are active participants in media culture.

Audience as a “Useful Fiction”

  • No monolithic audience exists; people interpret media differently.
  • Content creators must imagine a shared audience.

Media Interpretation

  • Stuart Hall’s three modes of reading are active processes.
  • Dominant reading involves accepting the intended meaning.
  • Oppositional reading involves rejecting or critiquing the message.
  • Negotiated reading involves partly accepting and partly challenging the message.

James Carey’s Models of Communication

  • Transmission is communication as sending a message, emphasizing information transfer.
  • Ritual is communication as a social bonding process, strengthening relationships and identity.
  • Audiences engage in both models, using media for social connection.

Ethnography

  • Involves studying people's behaviors, cultures, and practices, especially within their natural settings, through immersion, observation, and participation.
  • Contemporary ethnography often examines familiar settings.
  • Media research uses ethnography to understand audience practices and interactions with media content, though extended participant observation is less common.
  • Ethnography can be considered a "toolbox," where methods can be adapted and used based on the research context.
  • Tools include observation, interviews, ethnography, auto-ethnography.
  • Researchers must gain informed consent, ensure anonymity, and manage participants' emotional and physical safety.

Assemblage in Media

  • A mix of technologies, people, and meanings that can shift over time.
  • Methodology as flexible and dependent on the moment, incorporating multiple methods and perspectives.
  • Audiences interpret differently based on time, culture, and personal experience.
  • "Assemblage" describes how media is formed through a mix of technologies, people, and meanings that can shift over time.

After Data Collection: Analyzing the Data

  • Count it
  • Summarize it
  • Compare it
  • Code it
  • Cluster your codes
  • Tilt perspectives on it (selective coding)
  • Collaborate with others’ codes

Ethnographic Methods: Strengths and Limitations

  • Participant Observation is actively engaging in the community you are studying.
  • Netnography is Observing/Analyzing online communities
  • Auto-ethnography is Researchers Reflect on their own personal experiences as part of the study
  • Interviews & Focus Groups are Gathering in-depth insights from participants
  • Media Discourse Analysis is Studying media content and audience reactions
  • Common methods have advantages and limitations.
  • Focus groups may be ineffective for personal topics.
  • Access to certain communities might be difficult.

Community and Contradiction

  • Opinions may vary widely, creating internal debates.
  • Researchers must be aware that communities may have multiple, sometimes opposing, viewpoints.

Practical Ethics in Research

  • Researchers should be aware of their university's ethics procedures, including approval from ethics boards and adhering to privacy laws.
  • Store data securely/get formal consent, ensuring anonymity in publications.
  • Follow-up care may be required for participants, especially collecting sensitive data.

Reflexivity in Ethnographic Research

  • Researchers must be conscious of their position in the research process.
  • The researcher’s presence can shape the community’s dynamics and requires ongoing reflection on how that presence affects the research.

Visual Analysis

  • Primary texts are media like films and books; secondary texts are related materials like reviews and trailers; tertiary texts are conversations audiences have about these media.
  • Meaning is co-constructed by the text and the audience.
  • The role of the researcher, warning against assuming a position of authority that could overshadow audience perspectives.
  • Advocated for self-reflection on the researcher’s own interpretations, noting that the researcher is simultaneously a viewer, which can enrich the analysis.

Collaborative Analysis

  • Contradictions in media can be revealed through different methods of analysis.
  • Combining visual analysis with audience feedback and other methods can uncover multiple meanings in a media text.
  • Values Collective Knowledge and Encourages Reflective Practice.

Theorization: Turning Data into Theory

  • Recognizes that, as researchers, we’re always interpreting things and building theory as soon as we begin analyzing.
  • A claim of understanding, which is why it's such a huge responsibility.
  • Context Matters

Direction 1: Focusing and Funneling through Lateral Summarizing

  • Break up the interview content into small, manageable pieces.
  • Group similar codes together.
  • Assign clear, meaningful labels to the clusters of codes.
  • Identify similarities and contradictions that allow for deeper insights.

Direction 2: Contextualizing and Theorizing Your Data

  • Linking your findings to existing research, considering the larger social or or political structures at play, and testing your emerging theory against your data.
  • People often view media as a mix of factual reporting and performance.

Contradictions and Ideology

  • People’s statements can serve multiple purposes, highlighting the importance of identifying contradictions in the data for theorization.
  • Researchers are encouraged to avoid oversimplified conclusions and instead look at how these media serve as sites of fantasy and self-imagination.
  • Explore contradictions without simplifying them.
  • Use direct quotes from interviews to ground your theory in the data.
  • Consider broader social or ideological implications.
  • Through comparison with existing research, but also think about the transferability of your findings to other contexts.

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Description

Explore Michael Schulman's insights on the internet's impact on fan communities, the dual nature of fandom, and evolving creator-audience dynamics. Learn about challenges, fan empowerment, and organized fan influence in entertainment. Case studies illustrate key analysis points.

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