Methods of Knowing in Science

Methods of Knowing

• Method of Tenacity: People hold firmly onto beliefs because they have always known them to be true.
• Method of Authority: Beliefs are established based on the word of an authority figure or institution.
• A Priori Method: Based on intuition or common sense, assuming propositions are self-evident.
• Method of Science: Emphasizes objectivity and strives for conclusions based on verifiable, observable events.

Characteristics of Science

• Objective: Focuses on unbiased observations and facts.
• Empirical: Based on evidence from observation or experimentation.
• Controlled: Uses controlled experiments to isolate variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Systematic: Follows a structured process for observation and analysis.
• Self-Correcting: Continually evolves and updates based on new evidence.
• Authority-Free: Truth is not based on the word of any person or group.
• Verifiable and Falsifiable: Conclusions can be independently verified and disproven.
• Skeptical: Questions existing beliefs and assumptions.

Goals of Science

• Document empirical regularities/relationships: Identify patterns and relationships in observed phenomena.
• Predict future outcomes: Use knowledge of patterns to forecast future events.
• Explain relationships/regularities: Uncover the causes and mechanisms behind observed relationships.
• Control: Isolate variables and rule out alternative explanations.

Scientific vs. Nonscientific Questions

• Scientific Questions: Can be answered by identifying verifiable and observable events.
• Nonscientific Questions: May involve values, opinions, or beliefs that are not easily measured or tested.

Examples:

• Scientific Questions:
  • Why do some people read pornographic literature?
  • Why is one type of organization more productive than another?
  • Are childhood relationships with parents related to adult sexual preferences?
• Nonscientific Questions:
  • Is pornography morally wrong?
  • Should productivity be valued over morality?
  • Is homosexuality contrary to God’s will?