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Questions and Answers
A primary metabolite is directly involved in normal growth, development, and ______.
A primary metabolite is directly involved in normal growth, development, and ______.
reproduction
Primary metabolites are typically formed during the ______ phase.
Primary metabolites are typically formed during the ______ phase.
growth
Citric acid is produced by ______ niger.
Citric acid is produced by ______ niger.
Aspergillus
Secondary metabolites do not play a main role in growth, development, and ______.
Secondary metabolites do not play a main role in growth, development, and ______.
Examples of secondary metabolites include ______ and antibiotics such as erythromycin.
Examples of secondary metabolites include ______ and antibiotics such as erythromycin.
Primary metabolites are commonly used in industrial ______.
Primary metabolites are commonly used in industrial ______.
Atropine is a competitive antagonist for ______ receptors.
Atropine is a competitive antagonist for ______ receptors.
Secondary metabolites are typically formed during the end or near the ______ phase of growth.
Secondary metabolites are typically formed during the end or near the ______ phase of growth.
The process of photosynthesis begins with the ______ reaction which occurs only during the day.
The process of photosynthesis begins with the ______ reaction which occurs only during the day.
The light reaction occurs in the thylakoid membranes of ______.
The light reaction occurs in the thylakoid membranes of ______.
During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two electron-transport ______.
During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two electron-transport ______.
The dark reaction is also referred to as the ______ reaction.
The dark reaction is also referred to as the ______ reaction.
The dark reaction takes place in the ______ of the chloroplast.
The dark reaction takes place in the ______ of the chloroplast.
In the Calvin cycle, 6 molecules of carbon dioxide are converted into one sugar molecule or ______.
In the Calvin cycle, 6 molecules of carbon dioxide are converted into one sugar molecule or ______.
The chemical equation for the dark reaction includes the conversion of NADPH and ATP into ______.
The chemical equation for the dark reaction includes the conversion of NADPH and ATP into ______.
The Calvin cycle consists of three main stages: carbon fixation, ______, and regeneration.
The Calvin cycle consists of three main stages: carbon fixation, ______, and regeneration.
A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), to form a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called ______.
A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), to form a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called ______.
The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the reaction of CO2 with RuBP is known as ______.
The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the reaction of CO2 with RuBP is known as ______.
In the second stage of the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to convert 3-PGA into a three-carbon sugar called ______.
In the second stage of the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH are used to convert 3-PGA into a three-carbon sugar called ______.
The process of glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and is ______-independent.
The process of glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and is ______-independent.
The overall reaction of glucose generates a net gain of ______ molecules of ATP.
The overall reaction of glucose generates a net gain of ______ molecules of ATP.
The Krebs cycle takes place in the ______ of mitochondria under aerobic conditions.
The Krebs cycle takes place in the ______ of mitochondria under aerobic conditions.
During biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified and converted into more complex products, which include intermediates like ______.
During biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified and converted into more complex products, which include intermediates like ______.
C1 is derived from S methyl of L-__________.
C1 is derived from S methyl of L-__________.
C2 is derived from __________.
C2 is derived from __________.
The building blocks for many biosynthetic pathways are produced mostly from ______, glycolysis, and the Krebs cycle.
The building blocks for many biosynthetic pathways are produced mostly from ______, glycolysis, and the Krebs cycle.
C5 is derived from __________ units.
C5 is derived from __________ units.
C6-C3 units are derived from phenylalanine or __________.
C6-C3 units are derived from phenylalanine or __________.
The shikimate biosynthetic pathway is also known as the __________ pathway.
The shikimate biosynthetic pathway is also known as the __________ pathway.
The enzyme that catalyzes the formation of shikimate 3-phosphate is called __________ kinase.
The enzyme that catalyzes the formation of shikimate 3-phosphate is called __________ kinase.
The shikimic acid pathway is important for the biosynthesis of __________ compounds.
The shikimic acid pathway is important for the biosynthesis of __________ compounds.
The pathway begins with two substrates: phosphoenol pyruvate and __________-4-phosphate.
The pathway begins with two substrates: phosphoenol pyruvate and __________-4-phosphate.
The aromatic amino acids produced by the shikimate pathway include Tryptophan, Tyrosine, and ______.
The aromatic amino acids produced by the shikimate pathway include Tryptophan, Tyrosine, and ______.
The malonic-acid pathway is involved in the synthesis of ______ acids.
The malonic-acid pathway is involved in the synthesis of ______ acids.
Acetyl-CoA is modified to provide the substrate for ______ acid synthase.
Acetyl-CoA is modified to provide the substrate for ______ acid synthase.
Malonyl-CoA contains a 3-carboxylic acid, ______, bound to Coenzyme A.
Malonyl-CoA contains a 3-carboxylic acid, ______, bound to Coenzyme A.
The mevalonate pathway is essential for cholesterol ______.
The mevalonate pathway is essential for cholesterol ______.
Isoprenoid compounds begin with the building blocks of ______ pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.
Isoprenoid compounds begin with the building blocks of ______ pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.
Farnesyl pyrophosphate is a product formed when geranyl pyrophosphate is associated with ______.
Farnesyl pyrophosphate is a product formed when geranyl pyrophosphate is associated with ______.
The enzyme involved in synthesizing HMG-CoA is called ______.
The enzyme involved in synthesizing HMG-CoA is called ______.
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Study Notes
Metabolism and Metabolites
- Metabolism encompasses all chemical transformations within living organisms, vital for their survival.
- Metabolites are the products and intermediates of metabolic processes.
Primary and Secondary Metabolites
- Primary metabolites are directly involved in growth, development, and reproduction.
- They perform essential physiological functions in the organism.
- Examples: ethanol, lactic acid, amino acids (L-glutamate, L-lysine), citric acid
- Secondary metabolites are synthesized from primary metabolites.
- They are not directly involved in fundamental life processes like growth and reproduction.
- Often produced during the stationary phase of growth.
- Many play a role in ecological functions like defense mechanisms (antibiotics, pigments).
- Examples: atropine, erythromycin, bacitracin.
Photosynthesis
- Two stages: light-dependent reaction and light-independent reaction.
- Light-dependent reaction:
- Occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
- Converts light energy into ATP and NADPH using photosystems I and II.
- Water is used and oxygen is produced.
- Equation: 2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP
- Light-independent reaction:
- Also called the Calvin cycle.
- Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
- Uses ATP and NADPH from the light reaction to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
- Equation: 3 CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5 H2O + 9 ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi
- Stages: carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of RuBP.
Glycolysis
- Breaks down glucose into pyruvate.
- Occurs in the cytosol and is independent of oxygen.
- Produces a net gain of two ATP molecules.
The Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
- A series of enzymatic reactions in the mitochondrial matrix.
- Oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide and reduced coenzymes (generating ATP via the electron transport chain).
- Occurs in eight steps under aerobic conditions.
- Equation: C6H12O6 + 6CO2 + 38 ADP + 38P (inorganic) → 6H2O + 6CO2 + 38 ATP
Biosynthetic Pathways of Secondary Metabolites
- Biosynthesis is a multi-step process where simple molecules are converted into complex products by enzymes.
- Building blocks for secondary metabolite synthesis come from primary metabolites, especially from photosynthesis, glycolysis, and the Krebs cycle.
- Important building blocks include: acetyl CoA, shikimic acid, mevalonic acid, malonic acid.
Shikimic Acid Pathway
- Key pathway for the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and others.
- Occurs in chloroplast plant cells.
- Starts with phosphoenol pyruvate and erythrose-4-phosphate, ending with chorismate.
- Produces the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan.
- Plays a vital role in connecting central and specialized metabolism in plant cells.
Malonic Acid (Malonate/Acetate) Pathway
- Involves acyl carrier protein (ACP) to produce fatty acylthioesters of ACP.
- These intermediates are crucial in fatty acid synthesis.
- Generates even-numbered fatty acids from butyric to arachidic acid.
Mevalonic Acid (Mevalonate) Pathway
- Also known as the isoprenoid pathway.
- Involves the synthesis of 3-hydroxy-3- methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR).
- Crucial for various cellular metabolisms including cholesterol biosynthesis and protein synthesis.
- Produces isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), building blocks for isoprenoid compounds.
- Involved in the synthesis of cholesterol, which is used for membrane structure, steroid hormones, myelin sheets, vitamin D, and synaptic vesicles.
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