Meta-Ethics and Morality Overview
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Questions and Answers

Which of these statements best describes the meta-ethical view of Utilitarianism?

  • Goodness is based on divine commands.
  • Goodness is a matter of individual preference.
  • Goodness is relative to cultural norms.
  • Goodness is the same as pleasure. (correct)

Moral anti-realism asserts that moral properties, such as goodness, exist in reality.

False (B)

What does the hedonic calculus refer to?

  • A method for determining the moral worth of an action based on its consequences.
  • A philosophical argument for the existence of objective moral values.
  • A system for measuring the intensity and duration of pleasure and pain. (correct)
  • A mathematical formula used to calculate the overall happiness of a society.

Ethical naturalism contends that goodness is a ______ property.

<p>natural</p> Signup and view all the answers

Aristotle's naturalism identifies goodness with what?

<p>Flourishing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Bentham, what is the basis for goodness?

<p>Pleasure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hume's 'is-ought' gap refer to?

<p>The idea that you cannot derive an 'ought' statement (a statement about what should be) from an 'is' statement (a statement about what is).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the naturalistic fallacy refer to?

<p>The mistake of assuming that something being natural automatically makes it good or morally right.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Moore's open question argument demonstrate?

<p>It challenges naturalist claims by showing that any attempt to define goodness in terms of natural properties ultimately leads to a trivial or uninformative statement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to William Shakespeare's Hamlet, what is the basis of good and bad?

<p>Thinking makes them so. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of normative ethical theories?

<p>To create a system for determining which actions are good and which are bad.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a form of normative ethical theory?

<p>Meta-ethics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ethical naturalism is a non-cognitivist theory.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of Hume's 'is-ought' gap?

<p>Moral judgments cannot be deduced from facts about how things are. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key criticism of both naturalism and cognitivism according to Hume's is-ought gap?

<p>They attempt to derive moral judgments from factual observations, which Hume argues is not logically possible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of Moore's 'open question' argument against naturalism?

<p>It argues that identifying goodness with a natural property, like pleasure, leads to a meaningless tautology because it cannot provide any new information about the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Moore, what is the nature of goodness?

<p>Goodness is a non-natural property that cannot be defined or equated with anything else.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Moore's intuitionism is a non-cognitive theory.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Mackie's main argument against moral realism?

<p>Mackie argues that the existence of cross-cultural moral disagreement indicates that there are no objective moral properties.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Mackie's main argument against non-cognitivism?

<p>It fails to account for the role of reason in ethical reasoning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mackie believes that ethical language is a combination of cognitivism and non-cognitivism.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a key characteristic of Hume's non-cognitive moral psychology?

<p>Reason can directly control emotions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume's non-cognitive moral psychology, what is the role of reason in moral judgments?

<p>Reason is used to rationalize our emotional responses to actions, providing justifications for our beliefs and actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Haidt, reason can effectively control our emotions over the long term.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between Hume's view of reason and the view of reason in virtue ethics?

<p>Hume believed that reason cannot control our emotions, while virtue ethics acknowledges that reason can indirectly control emotions through cultivation of virtuous habits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Ayer's emotivism, what is the origin of moral judgments?

<p>Moral judgments are based on feelings and emotions, rather than judgments of reason.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Ayer's emotivism and Moore's non-naturalist intuitionism?

<p>Ayer's emotivism rejects the idea of a non-natural property of goodness, while Moore's theory believes in the existence of such a property, which is not reducible to any natural quality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Ayer's verification principle?

<p>Ethical statements must be empirically verifiable to be meaningful. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mackie's anti-realist arguments rely heavily on the verification principle.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of Mackie's 'error theory'?

<p>It argues that all ethical beliefs are false because there are no objective moral properties.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concern of those who criticises moral nihilism?

<p>It undermines the possibility of a just and ordered society. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Foot, the separation between facts and values is the mistake at the heart of anti-realist theories.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Hare's prescriptivism, what is the main function of ethical language?

<p>Ethical language primarily serves to express prescriptions or commands, rather than simply stating facts or expressing emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main weakness of Hare's prescriptivism according to Mackie?

<p>It fails to fully account for the role of logic and disagreement within ethical language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Hare's prescriptivism and Ayer's emotivism?

<p>Hare emphasizes the prescriptive nature of ethical language, while Ayer focuses on the emotional expression of moral judgments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to virtue ethics, moral judgments are based on the cultivation of virtuous habits.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Both Hume and Ayer believe that the ability to make moral judgments is a uniquely human characteristic.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main critique of anti-realist moral theories regarding the possibility of moral progress?

<p>Critics argue that if there are no objective moral values, then the concept of moral progress becomes meaningless, as there is no objective standard against which to measure progress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Meta-ethics

The branch of philosophy that investigates the nature of goodness, including whether it exists objectively.

Normative ethical theories

Ethical theories that propose systems for determining right and wrong actions, often based on principles like utility, duty, or virtue.

Meta-ethical core

The core beliefs about the nature of goodness that underpin a normative ethical theory. For example, utilitarianism's meta-ethical core is that goodness is equivalent to pleasure.

Moral Realism

The view that moral properties like goodness and badness exist objectively in reality.

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Moral anti-realism

The view that moral properties like goodness and badness do not exist objectively in reality.

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Cognitivism

The view that ethical language expresses beliefs about objective reality, which can be true or false.

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Non-cognitivism

The view that ethical language does not express beliefs about objective reality, but rather expresses non-cognitive states, such as emotions or personal preferences.

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Ethical Naturalism

The view that goodness is a real property that exists in the natural world, often identified with a specific natural property like pleasure or flourishing.

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Aristotelian Naturalism

Aristotle's claim that goodness is equivalent to eudaimonia, a state of flourishing that is a natural feature of living organisms.

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Utilitarian Naturalism

Bentham's claim that goodness is equivalent to pleasure, which is a natural property of sentient beings.

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Hume's is-ought gap

A philosophical argument that challenges the derivation of moral judgments from factual statements, arguing that you cannot deduce an 'ought' from an 'is'.

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Non-cognitivism

A view that rejects the objective reality of moral properties and asserts that ethical language expresses non-cognitive states, such as emotions or preferences.

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Moore's Non-naturalist Intuitionism

A view that argues for a non-natural property of goodness, suggesting it's not reducible to any natural property like pleasure or flourishing.

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Moore's open question argument

Moore's argument that naturalism is false because it cannot provide a satisfactory definition of goodness, as any proposed definition would always raise an open question.

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Moore's naturalistic fallacy

Moore's claim that it is a fallacy to assume that something being natural means that it is good.

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Intuitionism

The theory that we directly know moral truths through intuition, without relying on reasoning or empirical evidence.

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Mackie's argument from relativity

Mackie's argument against moral realism, stating that the existence of significant cross-cultural moral disagreement points to the possibility that ethical values are based on social conditioning rather than objective truths.

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Hume's non-cognitive moral psychology

Hume's theory of motivation, which argues that moral judgments are always connected to emotions and that reason alone cannot motivate actions.

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Prescriptivism

A theory that emphasizes the role of emotions and prescriptions (commands or recommendations) in ethical language, suggesting that saying "X is wrong" is equivalent to saying "Don't do X!"

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Mackie's Error Theory

Mackie's theory that combines anti-realism (the denial of objective moral properties) with the claim that ethical language is cognitive, expressing beliefs that are inherently false because those properties don't exist.

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Moral Nihilism

The view that morality is meaningless because there is no objective right or wrong, leading to the potential consequence that people might stop caring about ethical behavior.

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The Nihilism Objection

The argument that anti-realism leads to destructive consequences for society, like the Holocaust, because it undermines the basis for moral judgments and makes holding someone morally accountable difficult.

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Moral Progress

The idea that morality has progressed over time, with societies moving towards more just and equitable principles.

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Moore's argument for cognitivism

The philosophical perspective that emphasizes the importance of moral reasoning, persuasion, and disagreement in ethical language, suggesting that these actions are incompatible with purely non-cognitive expressions of emotion.

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Anti-realist account of moral progress

The argument that moral progress is not a result of discovering objective moral truths but rather a reflection of changing societal values or the increasing rational coherence of prescriptions according to universalizability.

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Hare's Prescriptivism

The view that ethical language primarily expresses prescriptions, which function as commands or recommendations, and that moral disagreement can be explained in terms of conflicting prescriptions.

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Mackie's cognitivist anti-realism

The claim that ethical language expresses both non-cognitive states, such as emotions, and cognitive beliefs about objective moral properties, even though those properties are ultimately considered to be nonexistent.

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Mackie's argument for cognitivism

The argument that ethical language expresses beliefs about objective moral properties, suggesting that when we say “stealing is wrong,” we are making a statement that can be true or false.

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Virtue ethics

A form of ethical theory that emphasizes the role of character, virtue, and practical wisdom in achieving a good life, often drawing on the ideas of Aristotle.

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Virtue ethicist critique of Kant, Bentham, and Mill

The argument that Kant, Bentham, and Mill responded incorrectly to Hume's critique of morality by trying to find a philosophical foundation for morality in isolation from its practical context, leading to difficulties in grounding ethical concepts.

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Virtue ethics account of moral progress

The claim that moral progress is a result of a more coherent understanding of the needs for human flourishing, often associated with the Aristotelian concept of 'practice.'

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Study Notes

Introduction

  • The topic examines whether morality is real or a matter of opinion.
  • Meta-ethics explores the nature of goodness, questioning its existence.
  • Normative ethics establishes systems for determining right and wrong actions (e.g., Utilitarianism, Kantianism, Virtue ethics).
  • Utilitarianism's foundation is a meta-ethical core, defining goodness as pleasure or happiness.
  • Normative theories require goodness to exist, while some meta-ethical theories argue against this.
  • Metaphysical and linguistic perspectives are central to understanding goodness.

Metaphysical

  • Moral realism posits moral properties (like goodness/badness) exist independently.
  • Moral anti-realism suggests moral properties don't exist independently.

Linguistic

  • Cognitivism argues ethical language expresses beliefs about reality that can be true or false.
  • Non-cognitivism argues ethical language expresses non-cognitive elements like emotions.

Ethical Naturalism

  • Ethical naturalism argues goodness is a natural property within the natural world.
  • Aristotelian naturalism links goodness with eudaimonia (flourishing), a natural feature of organisms.
  • Utilitarian naturalism equates goodness with pleasure/happiness, both natural properties.

Naturalism vs Hume's Is-Ought Gap

  • Aristotle, Bentham, and Mill support naturalism through arguments rooted in human flourishing and/or happiness.
  • Hume's "is-ought" gap argues you can't logically deduce an "ought" (moral obligation) from an "is" (fact).
  • Moral judgements aren't based on facts; instead, they're based on our perceptions and feelings.
  • The is-ought gap suggests problems for naturalistic attempts to define goodness through natural properties.

Moore's Non-naturalist Intuitionism

  • Moore criticised naturalism. He argued the definition of goodness in terms of natural properties isn't logically sound.
  • Moore's "open question argument'' (e.g., Is goodness the same as pleasure?) demonstrates that naturalism's definition isn't satisfactory.
  • Moore argued that goodness is a non-natural property known through intuition.

Moore's Naturalistic Fallacy

  • Moore introduced the naturalistic fallacy, arguing that defining goodness through natural properties is a fallacy—it mixes up defining goodness with a description.
  • The naturalistic fallacy challenges the assumption that what is natural is therefore good.
  • Moral statements aren't empirically verifiable; instead, they're derived from an experience of 'goodness'

Emotivism

  • Ayer's emotivism argues that moral statements express emotions or attitudes, not factual claims.
  • "Boo/hurrah theory" describes how ethical language expresses approval or disapproval rather than facts.
  • Emotivism treats morality as non-cognitive (not a matter of fact).

Prescriptivism

  • Hare developed prescriptivism as an improvement on emotivism.
  • Prescriptivism posits that moral judgements are prescriptions (commands), not descriptions of facts.
  • Hare argues that moral language is used to prescribe actions rather than merely express feelings.

Mackie's Error Theory

  • Mackie's error theory is a form of moral anti-realism.
  • It argues that all our moral beliefs are false because objective moral properties don't exist.
  • Mackie argues against the concept of objective moral values and properties. He describes them as being 'queer'.

The Issue of Moral Progress

  • Moral progress is a concern regarding if anti-realism is incompatible with the idea of progress in moral principles.
  • The defense of moral realism points towards objective standards of moral progress (examples include advancements in civil rights and human rights).
  • A counter to this defense is that moral progress is a result of evolving societal circumstances rather than objective standards.

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Description

This quiz explores the foundational concepts in meta-ethics, examining whether morality is real or subjective. It delves into normative ethics, moral realism, and anti-realism, while also considering the linguistic aspects of ethical language. Test your understanding of key theories such as Utilitarianism and the metaphysical implications of moral properties.

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