Mesopotamia: Ancient Civilization

Ancient Civilizations

• Ancient civilizations were the first settled, stable communities forming the basis for later states, nations, and empires.
• They emerged at different times and locations but shared characteristics like agriculture, urbanization, social stratification, political organization, and cultural expression.

Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamia was situated in the Fertile Crescent, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in modern Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.
• It is one of the earliest known civilizations, originating in the 4th millennium BCE.
• Dominant groups included Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.
• Noteworthy innovations include cuneiform writing, mathematics, astronomy, law (Code of Hammurabi), and ziggurat architecture.
• Irrigation systems were developed to support agriculture in the arid climate.
• City-states were independently governed and frequently engaged in warfare with each other.
• Religion was polytheistic, featuring a complex pantheon of gods and goddesses.

Ancient Egypt

• Ancient Egypt was located in northeastern Africa along the Nile River.
• It unified around 3100 BCE and lasted for over three thousand years.
• Pharaohs, considered divine monarchs, ruled the civilization.
• Monumental architecture such as pyramids and temples, hieroglyphic writing, mathematics, medicine, and mummification are defining features.
• Society was highly stratified, with priests and nobles at the top and peasants and slaves at the bottom.
• The economy was based on agriculture, trade, and taxation.
• The polytheistic religion emphasized the afterlife and the worship of gods like Ra, Osiris, and Isis.

Indus Valley Civilization

• It flourished in the Indus River Valley (modern Pakistan and northwest India) from approximately 3300 to 1700 BCE.
• Major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, featured urban planning, standardized weights and measures, sanitation systems, and brick construction.
• A writing system was developed but remains undeciphered.
• The economy was based on agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• Society appeared relatively egalitarian, lacking clear evidence of rulers or social hierarchy.
• Religion possibly centered on the worship of a mother goddess and sacred animals.
• Decline was due to climate change, floods, or invasions.

Ancient Greece

• This civilization was in southeastern Europe, composed of city-states across mainland Greece, the islands, and the coasts of Anatolia and Southern Italy.
• It emerged around the 8th century BCE and peaked during the Classical period (5th-4th centuries BCE).
• Contributions to philosophy (Plato, Aristotle), democracy (Athens), literature (Homer, Sophocles), art (sculpture, pottery), architecture (Parthenon), and science (mathematics, astronomy) are significant.
• City-states like Athens and Sparta had different political systems and cultures, often warring with each other.
• A polytheistic religion included a pantheon of gods and goddesses residing on Mount Olympus.
• Alexander the Great spread Greek culture and influence across a vast empire in the 4th century BCE.

Ancient Rome

• It began as a city-state on the Italian Peninsula in the 8th century BCE and expanded into a vast empire dominating the Mediterranean and much of Europe.
• Significant achievements include law (Roman law), engineering (roads, aqueducts, bridges), architecture (Colosseum, Pantheon), military organization (legions), and literature (Virgil, Cicero).
• The Republic was established in 509 BCE, sharing power between elected officials and the Senate.
• The Empire was established in 27 BCE, with emperors ruling as autocrats.
• Many different cultures and peoples were conquered and assimilated, spreading the Latin language and customs.
• Christianity became the dominant religion in the 4th century CE.
• The Western Roman Empire declined and fell in the 5th century CE, while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued for another thousand years.

Ancient China

• Ancient China is one of the oldest continuous civilizations, dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE in the Yellow River Valley.
• Dynasties like the Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, and Ming ruled for centuries, each with unique achievements and characteristics.
• Inventions include writing (calligraphy), printing, gunpowder, compass, porcelain, and silk.
• Philosophies such as Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism influenced Chinese culture and politics.
• The Great Wall was built to defend against northern invasions.
• The economy was based on agriculture, trade, and manufacturing.
• A centralized bureaucracy and meritocratic civil service examination system were established.

Mesoamerica

• Civilizations include the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca.
• Mesoamerica developed in present-day Mexico and Central America from around 1500 BCE.
• Key achievements include mathematics, astronomy, calendar systems, hieroglyphic writing, art, and architecture.
• The Olmecs are considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, influencing later civilizations.
• Maya civilization flourished from the 3rd to the 9th centuries CE, with city-states like Tikal and Palenque.
• The Aztecs created a large empire in the 14th-16th centuries CE, with its capital at Tenochtitlan.
• Human sacrifice was practiced as part of a complex social and religious system.
• It was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century.

Andean Civilizations

• These civilizations developed in the Andes Mountains of South America from around 3000 BCE.
• Main civilizations include the Norte Chico, Chavín, Nazca, Moche, and Inca.
• Noteworthy achievements include agriculture (terrace farming, irrigation), textiles, pottery, metallurgy, and architecture.
• Norte Chico (Caral) is the earliest known civilization in the Americas.
• Chavín culture influenced later civilizations through its religious art and iconography.
• The Nazca lines are a mysterious set of desert geoglyphs.
• Moche culture was known for its pottery and irrigation systems.
• The Inca Empire was the largest in pre-Columbian America, with its capital at Cusco.
• An extensive road system was built, and quipu (knotted strings) were used for record-keeping.
• It was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century.