COG Lecture 5 - Mental Imagery

• Lesson code: 316
• Kahneman's single resource model indicates arousal plays an important role in determining attentional capacity
• Norman and Shallice's SAS (Supervisory Attentional System) activates when you need to correct errors, in dangerous situations, and to inhibit automatic processes

What is Mental Imagery

• Mental imagery involves internal representation, imagination, visualization, and seeing in the mind
• It is related to perceiving with senses, thinking, interpreting, and creating pictures
• Imagination is an ability that exists in one's mind

Theories of Mental Imagery

• The pictorial theory of mental imagery says that mental images are like internal pictures in the mind, recreating images in our minds
• The Functional Equivalence theory suggests mental imagery, actual perception, and motor actions share similar neural pathways and cognitive processes
• Imagined and overt movements use the same mental processes; imagery is an internal unfolding of a motor representation without physical movement
• The Propositional Codes theory suggests mental imagery is an epiphenomenon (secondary effect) of more basic cognitive processes
• Mental representations are stored and processed using abstract, language-like symbols, rather than picture-like images; manipulated images are symbolic representations, not the image itself
• Kosslyn argues imagery uses same machinery as perception, whereas Pylyshyn argues imagery and perception use fundamentally different mechanisms

Behavioral Evidence for Functional Equivalence Theory

• Shepard and Metzler (1971) conducted a study on mental rotation
• The task involved mental rotation to determine if two objects are the same or different, in three conditions: 2D-match (picture-plane pair), 3D-match (depth pair), and Non-match
• Greater angles of rotation correlate with increased decision time
• A linear relationship between the rotation distance and the time needed to mentally perform rotation was observed
• Kosslyn et al. (1978) performed a study on mental traveling to move between locations based on memory
• Focus on the hut, and then focus on the tree
• Participants pushed a button once arrived at the dot in the center
• The distance between locations correlates with the time needed to mentally travel

Cognitive Neuroscience Evidence for Functional Equivalence Theory

• O'Craven & Kanwisher (2000) presented participants with pictures of faces or houses, then asked them to close their eyes and form vivid images of what they saw
• fMRI scans of the fusiform face area (FFA) and posterior parietal area (PPA) were taken
• FFA is active during face perception and imagining
• PPA is active during house perception and imagining
• Mental imagery activates the same content-specific regions in the brain as visual perception
• Kosslyn et al. (1999) tested participants that closed their eyes and visualized sets of stripes, comparing their properties
• Response time (RT) was longer in the TMS condition compared to the control condition
• The longer RT suggests V1 plays a crucial role in mental imagery processes, which engages similar neural mechanisms as actual visual perception

Neuropsychological Evidence for Functional Equivalence Theory

• Bisiach & Luzzatti (1978) asked neglect patients to imagine being in Piazza Del Duomo in Milan and describe it
• Neglect patients omitted details on the left side of their mental image when imagining the square from one perspective
• When asked to imagine the same square from the opposite viewpoint (180° rotation), they recalled the previously omitted details but neglected the side now on their left
• Andrade et al. (1997) asked participants to identify personal memories and focused on mental images associated
• Dual-attention tasks included eye movements, complex tapping, and fixed eyes, while focusing on their memories
• Eye movement tasks decreased vividness of mental images, compared to control conditions
• Mental images may have properties similar to actual perception

Limitations of Mental Imagery

• Results in mental imagery experiments may be influenced by participants' implicit knowledge or expectations, rather than actual properties of mental images
• Tacit knowledge may influence how people perform tasks
• Difficulties arise in explaining cases where performance on imagery tasks don't match related perceptual tasks
• Variations in mental imagery abilities across individuals are not well-understood

The Problem of Tacit Knowledge

• Tacit knowledge includes implicit and unconscious expectations difficult to articulate
• Pylyshyn (1981) found that when people think they are "scanning" a mental image, they take longer for longer distances
• However, when simply judging direction, distance does not matter
• The "scanning" effect may be due to people's expectations, not properties of a visual image
• Tacit knowledge can influence mental rotation or scanning tasks, with participants simulating real-world experiences

Problem of Dissociation

• Servos & Goodale (1995) studied Patient D.F., who suffered from agnosia and severe impairment in perceiving and discriminating object shapes, sizes, and orientations
• D.F. showed normal visual imagery abilities despite profound deficits in visual form perception
• This dissociation between impaired perception and preserved imagery challenges the notion that these processes share a common brain network

Problem of Individual differences

• Mental imagery ability varies across individuals; some neurotypical people are even "aphantasic"
• Mental imagery declines with age
• Neuropsychological studies rely on older participants

Interim Summary

• Imagery is not a single, undifferentiated ability as different types of imagery activate different brain areas
• The precise relationship between imagery and perception remains unclear
• The evidence seems more consistent with separate modules for imagery and perception
• Imagery may use both depictive and propositional representations

Functions of Mental Imagery

• Paivio (1985) identified that imagery has two functions (cognitive and motivational), each woth two levels(specific and general)

Specific Cognitive

• The purpose is to enhance the execution of particular sport-specific skills or movements
• Athletes use it to:
  • Perfect individual techniques
  • Improve motor skills
  • Enhance muscle memory

Specific Motivational

• It is used to visualize the achievement of specific goals
• Athletes visualize themselves winning, acheiving personal bests, receiving awrads etc.

General Cognitive

• Rehearsing strategies, game plans, and tactical elements of performance
• Athletes use it to:
  • Prepare and review game plans, strategies and tactics

General Motivational

• Arousal: Regulate arousal and stress levels
• Athletes visualize feeling excited, relaxed, or focused; and manage anxiety or nervousness
• Mastery: Enhance self-confidence, mental toughness, and focus
• Athletes visualize being confident, in control, and successfully coping with challenging situations

Driskell et al. (1994) - Cognitive Specific

• Conducted a meta-analysis of the literature on mental practice and it's effects on it's performance.
• Findings show mental practice has a positive effect but not as big as real practice
• The benefits of mental practice decreases, the time interval between practice and performance increased
• Both experts and novices could benefit from mental practice, but the effects were stronger for experts

Summary

• Imagery appears to use the same machinery as perception but this might reflect tacit knowledge and underlying representation may be propositional
• Imagery can be used to practice skills and modulate arousal
• Mental practice can be utilized in many domains, like sports, exercie, psychiatric disorders and neuro-rehabilitation