Memory: Storage and Retrieval Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What is the typical behavior of Random Access Memory (RAM) when retrieving data?

  • It retrieves data based on a systematic address. (correct)
  • It retrieves data based on content address.
  • It retrieves data sequentially.
  • It retrieves data randomly without any structure.

In state-dependent retrieval, which condition produced the highest mean number of words recalled?

  • Drug study, drug test.
  • Sober study, sober test. (correct)
  • Drug study, sober test.
  • Sober study, drug test.

Which output corresponds to the input (1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1) in content-addressable memory?

  • (0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0)
  • (1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1)
  • (1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0)
  • (1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1) (correct)

Which statement best describes the effect of using different states during study and testing?

<p>It may hinder recall in certain cases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon is illustrated by Marcel Proust's memory of the madeleine?

<p>The impact of sensory experiences on memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'uncertainty about perception' in the context of sources of uncertainty?

<p>Confusion about sensory data. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding from the study by Eich et al. in 1975 regarding drug and sober conditions?

<p>Results vary depending on the condition of study and test. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the fundamental difference between Random Access Memory and Content-Addressable Memory?

<p>RAM stores data in a fixed location while Content-Addressable Memory retrieves data based on content. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the range of probability for any event?

<p>0 to 1 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents subjective probability?

<p>The chance of alien abduction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What will the posterior probability pr(H | E) be if the prior probability of H is very low?

<p>It will be low regardless of the new evidence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If you roll a fair six-sided die, what is the probability of rolling an even number?

<p>$\frac{3}{6}$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Bayes's Theorem, what does Pr(H | E) represent?

<p>Posterior probability of hypothesis H after evidence E (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept involves people overestimating the likelihood of an event based on how similar it is to a stereotype?

<p>Representativeness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the likelihood of Pr(E | H) is similar to Pr(E | not H), what can be inferred about the posterior probability?

<p>pr(H | E) will approach the prior p(H). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Bayesian Optimality, how should two discrepant cues be combined?

<p>Their weighted average should be used based on reliability. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given P(H) = 0.1, P(E | H) = 0.7, P(E | not H) = 0.1, what is the posterior probability Pr(H | E)?

<p>0.4375 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which failure of representativeness relates to ignoring prior probabilities when making judgments?

<p>Base rate neglect (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the probability of an event measure?

<p>The likelihood of the occurrence of the event (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common failure resulting from representativeness in Bayesian reasoning?

<p>Base rate neglect. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What misconception is demonstrated when someone believes that a specific outcome is 'due' after a series of random events?

<p>Gambler’s fallacy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'insensitivity to sample size' in the context of representativeness?

<p>Assuming patterns in small samples reflect larger populations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a scenario where a positive test indicates possible COVID, what does a prior probability of P(H)=0.1 imply?

<p>It is unlikely to have COVID even with a positive test. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When considering P(E), what does it represent in Bayes's Theorem?

<p>Total probability of evidence E under all hypotheses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What scenario could lead to a low posterior probability Pr(H | E) according to Bayes’s Theorem?

<p>Low prior probability P(H) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Bayesian suboptimality indicate regarding decision-making?

<p>People often disregard relevant probabilities in favor of resemblance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When predicting the success of a student-teacher, which failure of representativeness could lead to erroneous conclusions?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best illustrates Bayes’s Theorem?

<p>Evidence E can change prior beliefs dramatically. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does representativeness have on judgment, particularly in medical examples like hospital demographics?

<p>It diminishes the accuracy of predictions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the probability of rolling a number greater than or equal to 3 on a six-sided die?

<p>$\frac{4}{6}$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which situation would base rate neglect most likely lead to an error in judgment?

<p>When relying solely on a vivid description of an individual (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a weatherman has an 80% reliability rating, what is the expected temperature for the next day in this Bayesian context?

<p>It should be averaged with other less reliable temperatures. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best captures the nature of misconceptions of chance as discussed?

<p>They lead people to expect randomness to create patterns (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Random Access Memory

Accessing data directly based on its address, like finding a specific book by its location on a shelf.

Content-addressable memory

Using a specific content pattern to retrieve data, like finding a book by its title instead of its location.

State-dependent retrieval

The state of mind during learning influences how well information is remembered. This is like being in the same environment when learning and recalling.

Uncertainty about Perception

Uncertainty about perception stems from what we see and interpret. This can lead to making wrong choices.

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Storage

The process of storing information in the brain.

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Retrieval

The process of retrieving stored information from the brain.

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Random access

The ability to retrieve information directly based on its address or location in memory.

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Content-addressable retrieval

The ability to retrieve information based on its content or meaning, rather than its specific location in memory.

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Probability

A number between 0 (impossible) and 1 (necessary) that represents the likelihood of an event occurring.

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Subjective Probabilities

The probabilities we assign based on our own reasoning and beliefs, not necessarily based on objective data.

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Probability (X) = X possibilities / Total possibilities

The chance of a specific event happening out of all possible events.

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Probability (X | Y)

The probability of a specific event (X) happening given that another event (Y) has already occurred.

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Conditional Probability

The probability of an event happening given that another event has happened.

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Bayes's Theorem

A method for updating our beliefs about a hypothesis (H) based on new evidence (E).

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Likelihood (P(E|H))

The probability of the evidence (E) being observed given that the hypothesis (H) is true.

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Prior Probability (P(H))

The prior probability of the hypothesis (H) being true before any evidence is considered.

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Posterior Probability (P(H|E))

The probability of the hypothesis (H) being true after considering the evidence (E).

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Normalizing Constant (P(E))

The probability of the evidence (E) occurring, regardless of which hypothesis is true.

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Bayes's Theorem: Consequence of Low Prior Probability

If prior belief about an event is strong (e.g., low probability of having COVID), new evidence (like a positive test) may have little impact on changing that belief.

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Bayes's Theorem: Consequence of Equal Likelihoods

If evidence is equally likely given an event is true or false (e.g., a coin flip), the evidence doesn't change your prior belief.

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Bayesian Optimality

Combining different sources of information, each weighted by its reliability, to reach the most likely outcome. This helps to account for uncertainty and make better decisions.

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Representativeness Heuristic

A cognitive bias where people assess the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a typical example of that event, neglecting other relevant information, like base rates.

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Base Rate Neglect

A cognitive bias where people fail to take into account the overall frequency or base rate of an event when making judgments. They focus on specific details instead.

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Representativeness Heuristic: Failure

A situation where people's judgment about the probability of an event is based on how well the event matches a specific prototype or stereotype, even if it's inconsistent with other information.

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Evidence Doesn't Change Prior Belief

A situation where the evidence provided doesn't influence the prior belief about an event, suggesting the evidence isn't useful or informative.

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Weighted Average for Discrepant Cues

Combining information from different sources, with weights reflecting their reliability, leading to a more accurate and informed judgment.

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Insensitivity to Sample Size

People are insensitive to the size of the sample when making judgments about probability. Smaller samples are more likely to have skewed results.

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Misconceptions of Chance

People tend to believe that random events should balance out, leading to incorrect predictions.

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Insensitivity to Predictability

Overestimating the consistency or predictability of things.

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Similarity Bias

This bias suggests that people tend to assume that two things that are similar in some ways are also likely to be similar in other ways.

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Framing Effect

This is when people tend to choose options that are framed in a positive way, even if the negative framing would lead to the same outcome.

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Small-Sample Bias

This is when people tend to overweight small-sample evidence, even if it contradicts larger-scale evidence.

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Study Notes

Memory: Storage and Retrieval

  • Memory encompasses the processes of storing and retrieving information.
  • Random access memory (RAM) allows for quick data retrieval.
  • Addresses in RAM can be systematically organized.
  • Data storage and access are fundamental to memory function.

Storage and Retrieval: Random Access Memory

  • RAM is a storage and retrieval system with specific addresses.
  • Data within RAM is organized according to its unique address.
  • Data is retrieved using the corresponding address.
  • An example shows how data is stored and retrieved based on specific addresses.

Storage and Retrieval: Content-addressable memory

  • Content-addressable memory (CAM) retrieves data based on its content instead of its address.
  • A given input returns a specific output.
  • An example illustration displays how CAM retrieves information.
  • Memory processes rely on this retrieval mechanism.

Storage and Retrieval

  • Memory storage and retrieval processes play a crucial role.
  • Learning environment can affect memory recall.
  • Learning underwater can negatively impact recall compared to learning on land.

Storage Dependent Retrieval

  • State-dependent retrieval refers to recalling information better when one is in the same state as during encoding.
  • Studying while sober and recalling while sober may lead to better results.
  • Study in one state and test in the same state for improved recall.

Probabilistic Reasoning

  • Probabilistic reasoning deals with uncertainty.
  • Evaluating the likelihood of events is a key aspect.

Sources of Uncertainty

  • Uncertainty affects how people perceive and make decisions.
  • Uncertainty about perception influences decisions in real-world situations.
  • Identifying sources of uncertainty is crucial for critical thinking.
  • Uncertainty in memory can lead to unreliable recollection of events.

Bayes's Theorem

  • Bayes' theorem helps update beliefs about the probability of an event given new evidence.
  • Likelihood and prior probability combine with new evidence.
  • A positive test result can increase your belief about the event's probability.
  • Low prior probabilities of events will minimize effects of new evidence.
  • If likelihoods for event are similar, previous belief remain more stable and less influenced by new evidence.

Bayesian Optimality

  • Optimal cue combination involves weighting cues based on their reliability.
  • Combining different cues with appropriate weights optimizes decision-making.
  • This principle is seen in how monkeys respond to visual and vestibular cues.

Bayesian Suboptimality

  • Failures in probabilistic reasoning, like base-rate neglect, demonstrate that people do not always use Bayesian reasoning optimally.
  • Prior beliefs and biases can lead to poor predictions.
  • The tendency to focus on similarities often results in neglect to base rates.
  • Misconceptions of chance and insensitivity to sample size are also common biases.

Metacognition

  • Metacognition involves thinking about thinking.

  • Confidence can be independent of accuracy, and more information can increase overconfidence.

  • Predicting which problems can be solved with increased confidence can be difficult or inaccurate.

  • Metacognition involves introspection about thinking processes.

  • The images support the study notes provided.

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Related Documents

Probabilistic Reasoning PDF

Description

Explore the essential concepts of memory, focusing on storage and retrieval methods such as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Content-addressable memory (CAM). This quiz covers how data is organized and accessed in memory systems, highlighting key mechanisms that enable efficient information retrieval. Test your understanding of these fundamental processes!

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