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Questions and Answers
What does gene amplification primarily involve?
What does gene amplification primarily involve?
- Increase in the number of genes for a certain function (correct)
- Decrease in the number of genes for a certain function
- Silencing of gene expression
- Rearrangement of gene units
Which drug is mentioned as a cause for gene amplification?
Which drug is mentioned as a cause for gene amplification?
- Cyclophosphamide
- Doxorubicin
- Aspirin
- Methotrexate (correct)
How does methotrexate exert its effect on cancer cells?
How does methotrexate exert its effect on cancer cells?
- By promoting gene rearrangement
- By increasing the number of acetylated histones
- By inhibiting dihydrofolate reductase gene (correct)
- By enhancing DNA synthesis
What is the main result of gene diminution during cell maturation?
What is the main result of gene diminution during cell maturation?
Which of the following describes gene rearrangement?
Which of the following describes gene rearrangement?
What role do acetylated compounds play in epigenetic regulation?
What role do acetylated compounds play in epigenetic regulation?
Which part of immunoglobulin genes is primarily involved in gene rearrangement?
Which part of immunoglobulin genes is primarily involved in gene rearrangement?
What is the primary effect of reducing DNA packing around histones?
What is the primary effect of reducing DNA packing around histones?
What is the main difference in the number of divisions between mitosis and meiosis?
What is the main difference in the number of divisions between mitosis and meiosis?
During which stage of meiosis II do the chromatids move toward opposite poles?
During which stage of meiosis II do the chromatids move toward opposite poles?
What type of daughter cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
What type of daughter cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
Which feature distinguishes crossing over from mitosis?
Which feature distinguishes crossing over from mitosis?
What type of chromosomes determine the sex of an organism?
What type of chromosomes determine the sex of an organism?
What is the first step in karyotyping?
What is the first step in karyotyping?
Which type of chromosome has the centromere located at the very end?
Which type of chromosome has the centromere located at the very end?
What is the primary outcome of meiosis in terms of genetic diversity?
What is the primary outcome of meiosis in terms of genetic diversity?
Which part of the tRNA is responsible for attaching to a specific amino acid?
Which part of the tRNA is responsible for attaching to a specific amino acid?
What is the function of small nuclear RNA (snRNA)?
What is the function of small nuclear RNA (snRNA)?
How are DNA viruses, like Hepatitis B, less prone to mutations compared to RNA viruses?
How are DNA viruses, like Hepatitis B, less prone to mutations compared to RNA viruses?
What is a unique feature of tRNA's anticodon loop?
What is a unique feature of tRNA's anticodon loop?
What is the primary role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in cells?
What is the primary role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in cells?
What characterizes apoptosis?
What characterizes apoptosis?
Which type of RNA is primarily involved in the synthesis of histones needed for mRNA processing?
Which type of RNA is primarily involved in the synthesis of histones needed for mRNA processing?
What is a main reason why RNA viruses are more difficult to vaccinate against?
What is a main reason why RNA viruses are more difficult to vaccinate against?
What is the purpose of denaturation in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
What is the purpose of denaturation in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Which enzyme is primarily used during the elongation phase of PCR?
Which enzyme is primarily used during the elongation phase of PCR?
How can PCR be applied in the diagnosis of genetic diseases?
How can PCR be applied in the diagnosis of genetic diseases?
What is one of the major advantages of using PCR for detecting infectious diseases?
What is one of the major advantages of using PCR for detecting infectious diseases?
Why can PCR be considered a fabulous diagnostic tool?
Why can PCR be considered a fabulous diagnostic tool?
What aspect of genomic DNA does PCR target when analyzing noncoding sequences?
What aspect of genomic DNA does PCR target when analyzing noncoding sequences?
Which step includes binding of primers in the PCR process?
Which step includes binding of primers in the PCR process?
What does the completion of the genome sequencing project enable in PCR applications?
What does the completion of the genome sequencing project enable in PCR applications?
What characterizes double minute (DM) chromosomes?
What characterizes double minute (DM) chromosomes?
Which of the following describe functions of proteins produced by tumor suppressor genes?
Which of the following describe functions of proteins produced by tumor suppressor genes?
What does the two-hit hypothesis state regarding tumor suppressor genes?
What does the two-hit hypothesis state regarding tumor suppressor genes?
How do oncogenes differ from tumor suppressor genes?
How do oncogenes differ from tumor suppressor genes?
What is a result of mutations in tumor suppressor genes?
What is a result of mutations in tumor suppressor genes?
What is the role of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) gene family in cells?
What is the role of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) gene family in cells?
Which of the following statements about tumor suppressor genes is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about tumor suppressor genes is incorrect?
What can overexpression of certain ABC transporters lead to?
What can overexpression of certain ABC transporters lead to?
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Study Notes
Meiosis II
- Meiosis II resembles mitosis and consists of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
- Prophase II: Formation of the mitotic spindle begins.
- Metaphase II: 23 d-chromosomes align at the equatorial plane.
- Anaphase II: Chromatids move towards opposite poles.
- Telophase II results in four daughter cells, each containing 23 s-chromosomes.
Comparison: Mitosis vs. Meiosis
- Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in germ cells.
- Mitosis involves one division and produces two genetically identical diploid cells.
- Meiosis undergoes two divisions, yielding four genetically diverse haploid cells.
- In meiosis, crossing over occurs, allowing gene exchange, whereas mitosis has no crossing over.
Chromosome Classification
- Autosome: 22 pairs that control somatic traits.
- Sex chromosomes: 1 pair that determines biological sex.
- Centromere position:
- Metacentric: Centered.
- Submetacentric: Between center and end.
- Acrocentric: Near one end, with one long arm and one short.
- Telocentric: At the end, not present in humans, but in mice.
Karyotyping
- Definition: Study of chromosomes by number and type, based on centromere position and length.
- Steps for karyotype analysis include adding heparin to the blood, centrifuging to separate WBCs, stimulating division, halting division with colchicine, and using a hypotonic solution to disperse chromosomes.
RNA Functions
-
tRNA (Transfer RNA): Transfers amino acids during protein synthesis, containing:
- Acceptor arm for amino acid attachment.
- Anticodon loop for mRNA interaction.
- Dihydrouracil and pseudouridine in various loops.
-
rRNA (Ribosomal RNA): Forms ribosome subunits (40S and 60S) responsible for protein synthesis.
-
Small nuclear RNA: Involved in mRNA processing and intron excision, including groups that remove introns and those that help synthesize histones.
Viruses and Nucleic Acids
- DNA viruses (e.g., Hepatitis B) have proofreading capabilities, making them less prone to mutations, thus easier to vaccinate against.
- RNA viruses (e.g., HIV, Hepatitis C) lack proofreading, resulting in higher mutation rates and challenges in vaccine development.
Apoptosis
- Apoptosis refers to programmed cell death.
- Gene expression is regulated chromosomally via amplification, diminution, rearrangement, and epigenetic mechanisms.
Drug Resistance
- Methotrexate, used in cancer treatment, inhibits dihydrofolate reductase but can lead to gene amplification in cancer cells, causing drug resistance.
Tumor Suppressor Genes
- Prevent tumor development by regulating the cell cycle, growth, DNA repair, and apoptosis.
- Loss-of-function mutations increase cancer risk, following the two-hit hypothesis where both gene alleles must be impaired for effects to be observed.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- PCR facilitates rapid evaluation of nucleic acids, essential for genetic disease diagnosis.
- Steps include DNA denaturation, elongation using Taq polymerase, and repeated cycles for amplification.
- Widely employed in detecting genetic disorders, infectious diseases, and forensic applications due to its sensitivity and reliability.
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