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Questions and Answers
What change in ploidy occurs during Meiosis I?
What change in ploidy occurs during Meiosis I?
Which process during meiosis contributes to genetic diversity through the mixing of genetic material?
Which process during meiosis contributes to genetic diversity through the mixing of genetic material?
What is the outcome of meiosis in terms of the number of haploid cells produced?
What is the outcome of meiosis in terms of the number of haploid cells produced?
In a dihybrid cross, what does Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment state?
In a dihybrid cross, what does Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment state?
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What results from independent assortment during meiosis?
What results from independent assortment during meiosis?
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What characterizes allopatric speciation?
What characterizes allopatric speciation?
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Which of the following is an example of a prezygotic barrier?
Which of the following is an example of a prezygotic barrier?
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What is the main reason why no single phylogeny is considered absolutely correct?
What is the main reason why no single phylogeny is considered absolutely correct?
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Which process allows bacteria to share genes across completely different species?
Which process allows bacteria to share genes across completely different species?
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Which type of reproductive barrier occurs after fertilization?
Which type of reproductive barrier occurs after fertilization?
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What usually follows mass extinction events in terms of evolutionary processes?
What usually follows mass extinction events in terms of evolutionary processes?
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What is one benefit of bacteria in biogeochemical cycles?
What is one benefit of bacteria in biogeochemical cycles?
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Which of the following statements about sympatric speciation is true?
Which of the following statements about sympatric speciation is true?
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What does hybrid sterility refer to?
What does hybrid sterility refer to?
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What type of ecosystem service encompasses products like food and water?
What type of ecosystem service encompasses products like food and water?
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Which method of horizontal gene transfer involves direct contact between bacteria?
Which method of horizontal gene transfer involves direct contact between bacteria?
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What ecological role do archaea primarily serve?
What ecological role do archaea primarily serve?
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Which process is essential for maintaining soil fertility and water purification in ecosystems?
Which process is essential for maintaining soil fertility and water purification in ecosystems?
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How do biodiverse ecosystems contribute to sustaining ecosystem services?
How do biodiverse ecosystems contribute to sustaining ecosystem services?
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Which of the following can disrupt animal phylogenetic trees?
Which of the following can disrupt animal phylogenetic trees?
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What does resilience refer to in the context of ecosystems?
What does resilience refer to in the context of ecosystems?
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Which of the following is a major driver of the sixth mass extinction event?
Which of the following is a major driver of the sixth mass extinction event?
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What aspect of food webs is critical for enhancing ecosystem stability?
What aspect of food webs is critical for enhancing ecosystem stability?
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What is the primary assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg principle regarding the population's mating patterns?
What is the primary assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg principle regarding the population's mating patterns?
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Which mode of selection is characterized by favoring both extreme phenotypes?
Which mode of selection is characterized by favoring both extreme phenotypes?
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What happens to allele frequencies in a population when genetic drift occurs?
What happens to allele frequencies in a population when genetic drift occurs?
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What does gene flow typically do to genetic variability within a population?
What does gene flow typically do to genetic variability within a population?
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Which species concept defines a species based on its ecological niche?
Which species concept defines a species based on its ecological niche?
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What is the relationship between sexual selection and natural selection?
What is the relationship between sexual selection and natural selection?
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How are expected genotype frequencies derived from known allele frequencies?
How are expected genotype frequencies derived from known allele frequencies?
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Which assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg principle prevents genetic drift from occurring?
Which assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg principle prevents genetic drift from occurring?
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Which mode of selection is characterized by favoring intermediate phenotypes?
Which mode of selection is characterized by favoring intermediate phenotypes?
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What does balancing selection maintain in a population?
What does balancing selection maintain in a population?
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Which of the following is NOT a key assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
Which of the following is NOT a key assumption of the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
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What characterizes the impact of genetic drift in small populations?
What characterizes the impact of genetic drift in small populations?
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How can the Biological Species Concept be a limitation when applied to certain organisms?
How can the Biological Species Concept be a limitation when applied to certain organisms?
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Which term describes the transfer of alleles between populations due to migration?
Which term describes the transfer of alleles between populations due to migration?
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What is the main reason linked genes do not assort independently?
What is the main reason linked genes do not assort independently?
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Which factor does NOT contribute to evolution according to the technical definition?
Which factor does NOT contribute to evolution according to the technical definition?
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Which of the following is the correct ratio of phenotypes observed in a typical F2 generation from a dihybrid cross of two heterozygous parents?
Which of the following is the correct ratio of phenotypes observed in a typical F2 generation from a dihybrid cross of two heterozygous parents?
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What best explains the reason fossils are considered part of an incomplete record?
What best explains the reason fossils are considered part of an incomplete record?
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Which of Darwin's postulates relates to an organism's ability to survive and reproduce more effectively than others?
Which of Darwin's postulates relates to an organism's ability to survive and reproduce more effectively than others?
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What role does synapomorphy play in phylogenetic trees?
What role does synapomorphy play in phylogenetic trees?
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Which method of dating fossils provides a specific age, such as using carbon-14?
Which method of dating fossils provides a specific age, such as using carbon-14?
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Which of the following is NOT one of Darwin's four postulates?
Which of the following is NOT one of Darwin's four postulates?
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How is homology important in understanding evolutionary patterns?
How is homology important in understanding evolutionary patterns?
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Which factor can significantly affect a population's response to climate change?
Which factor can significantly affect a population's response to climate change?
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What describes the change in allele frequencies over generations under the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
What describes the change in allele frequencies over generations under the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
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Which of the following is an example of natural selection?
Which of the following is an example of natural selection?
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In a population, what does differential fitness mean?
In a population, what does differential fitness mean?
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Which influential figure emphasized the struggle for survival due to resource competition?
Which influential figure emphasized the struggle for survival due to resource competition?
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What type of microorganisms are Archaea classified as?
What type of microorganisms are Archaea classified as?
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How do Archaea differ from bacteria?
How do Archaea differ from bacteria?
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What is the primary reason why all eukaryotes perform cellular respiration?
What is the primary reason why all eukaryotes perform cellular respiration?
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What organelles are said to have originated from the endosymbiotic event involving aerobic bacteria?
What organelles are said to have originated from the endosymbiotic event involving aerobic bacteria?
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Which of the following is a key feature of chloroplasts derived from cyanobacteria?
Which of the following is a key feature of chloroplasts derived from cyanobacteria?
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Which major plant lineage does not possess vascular tissue?
Which major plant lineage does not possess vascular tissue?
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The presence of which structures is a synapomorphy for non-vascular plants?
The presence of which structures is a synapomorphy for non-vascular plants?
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Which event supports the development of plastids in plants, green algae, and red algae?
Which event supports the development of plastids in plants, green algae, and red algae?
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What is a significant consequence of having mitochondria in all eukaryotic cells?
What is a significant consequence of having mitochondria in all eukaryotic cells?
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Which type of plant contains vascular tissue and has a dominant sporophyte life cycle?
Which type of plant contains vascular tissue and has a dominant sporophyte life cycle?
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What characteristic unites Charophytes and land plants?
What characteristic unites Charophytes and land plants?
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In what environment do extremophiles, often classified as Archaea, typically thrive?
In what environment do extremophiles, often classified as Archaea, typically thrive?
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What defines the sporophyte-dominant life cycle in vascular plants?
What defines the sporophyte-dominant life cycle in vascular plants?
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Which of the following factors does NOT influence biomes?
Which of the following factors does NOT influence biomes?
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How do ultimate causes of behavior differ from proximate causes?
How do ultimate causes of behavior differ from proximate causes?
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What does Hamilton's rule predict?
What does Hamilton's rule predict?
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What leads to exponential population growth?
What leads to exponential population growth?
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Which statement best describes logistic population growth?
Which statement best describes logistic population growth?
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How do density-dependent factors affect populations?
How do density-dependent factors affect populations?
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Which interaction leads to one species benefiting while the other is harmed?
Which interaction leads to one species benefiting while the other is harmed?
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Which of the following describes species richness?
Which of the following describes species richness?
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What is indicated by a high species evenness in a community?
What is indicated by a high species evenness in a community?
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Which index combines both species richness and evenness into a single value?
Which index combines both species richness and evenness into a single value?
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In mutualism, how is fitness affected for both species involved?
In mutualism, how is fitness affected for both species involved?
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What aspect of community structure does trophic structure examine?
What aspect of community structure does trophic structure examine?
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What factor primarily leads to changes in carrying capacity (K) for a population?
What factor primarily leads to changes in carrying capacity (K) for a population?
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How do human activities impact K for various organisms?
How do human activities impact K for various organisms?
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What key adaptation do seeds provide for seed plants?
What key adaptation do seeds provide for seed plants?
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Which of the following are included in gymnosperms?
Which of the following are included in gymnosperms?
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What distinguishes angiosperms from gymnosperms?
What distinguishes angiosperms from gymnosperms?
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In what way do seeds and amniotic eggs operate similarly?
In what way do seeds and amniotic eggs operate similarly?
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What is one of the main roles of plants as primary producers?
What is one of the main roles of plants as primary producers?
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Which of the following is a biogeochemical cycle in which plants play a critical role?
Which of the following is a biogeochemical cycle in which plants play a critical role?
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In what type of community interaction do plants benefit without harming other organisms?
In what type of community interaction do plants benefit without harming other organisms?
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What significant role do fungi play in ecosystems?
What significant role do fungi play in ecosystems?
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What distinguishes the digestive process in fungi from that in humans?
What distinguishes the digestive process in fungi from that in humans?
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Why are fungal mating types considered unusual from an animal perspective?
Why are fungal mating types considered unusual from an animal perspective?
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How do mycorrhizal relationships benefit plants?
How do mycorrhizal relationships benefit plants?
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What role do plants play in maintaining soil health?
What role do plants play in maintaining soil health?
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Which of the following is NOT a benefit provided by plants to humans?
Which of the following is NOT a benefit provided by plants to humans?
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How do fungi contribute to ecosystem stability?
How do fungi contribute to ecosystem stability?
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Which of the following correctly describes the flow of energy through ecosystems?
Which of the following correctly describes the flow of energy through ecosystems?
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What role do decomposers play in an ecosystem?
What role do decomposers play in an ecosystem?
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Which biogeochemical cycle is heavily impacted by the combustion of fossil fuels?
Which biogeochemical cycle is heavily impacted by the combustion of fossil fuels?
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How does genetic variability contribute to a population's survival amid climate change?
How does genetic variability contribute to a population's survival amid climate change?
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What are the three main components of diversity?
What are the three main components of diversity?
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Which of the following is a key synapomorphy that distinguishes sponges (Phylum: Porifera) from other animal groups?
Which of the following is a key synapomorphy that distinguishes sponges (Phylum: Porifera) from other animal groups?
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What defines the Bilateria group of animals?
What defines the Bilateria group of animals?
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What effect do synthetic fertilizers have on the nitrogen cycle?
What effect do synthetic fertilizers have on the nitrogen cycle?
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Which of the following is not a characteristic of protostomes?
Which of the following is not a characteristic of protostomes?
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What is phenotypic plasticity?
What is phenotypic plasticity?
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What is a consequence of climate change on species populations?
What is a consequence of climate change on species populations?
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What synapomorphy is shared by all vertebrates?
What synapomorphy is shared by all vertebrates?
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Which of the following describes the concept of ecosystem services?
Which of the following describes the concept of ecosystem services?
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What differentiates cnidarians from ctenophores in the group Radiata?
What differentiates cnidarians from ctenophores in the group Radiata?
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Which of the following describes major adaptations in response to climate change?
Which of the following describes major adaptations in response to climate change?
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Which group of animals is characterized by having an amniotic egg?
Which group of animals is characterized by having an amniotic egg?
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How does human activity disrupt the phosphorus cycle?
How does human activity disrupt the phosphorus cycle?
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What is a defining characteristic of eukaryotic organisms, including animals?
What is a defining characteristic of eukaryotic organisms, including animals?
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What describes the term 'niche' in ecology?
What describes the term 'niche' in ecology?
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How does climate change affect biogeochemical cycles?
How does climate change affect biogeochemical cycles?
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Which of the following statements about human evolution is accurate?
Which of the following statements about human evolution is accurate?
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What is the 10% rule in the context of energy flow through ecosystems?
What is the 10% rule in the context of energy flow through ecosystems?
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Which of the following factors affects climate?
Which of the following factors affects climate?
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Which factor decreases genetic diversity within a population?
Which factor decreases genetic diversity within a population?
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Which statement correctly contrasts animals with plants and fungi?
Which statement correctly contrasts animals with plants and fungi?
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What is the primary difference between weather and climate?
What is the primary difference between weather and climate?
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What role does the extracellular matrix (ECM) play in animal evolution?
What role does the extracellular matrix (ECM) play in animal evolution?
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In terms of energy acquisition, how do animals differ from fungi?
In terms of energy acquisition, how do animals differ from fungi?
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What distinguishes the major groups of jawed vertebrates (Gnathostomes)?
What distinguishes the major groups of jawed vertebrates (Gnathostomes)?
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Study Notes
Meiosis
- Ploidy changes during meiosis:
- Meiosis I: Diploid (2n) cells become haploid (n) due to homologous chromosome separation.
- Meiosis II: Haploid (n) cells remain haploid as sister chromatids separate.
- Result: Four haploid cells with a single set of chromosomes.
- Genetic diversity from meiosis:
- Crossing-over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, creating new gene combinations.
- Independent assortment: Random distribution of chromosomes into gametes, increasing genetic variation.
- Result: Genetically diverse offspring, promoting adaptation.
Mendelian Genetics
- Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses with Punnett squares: Analyze genotype and phenotype ratios (P, F1, and F2 generations). Predict offspring numbers based on ratios.
- Dihybrid crosses show independent assortment of traits unless genes are linked.
- Linked genes: Located on the same chromosome, inherited together, leading to different phenotype ratios.
History of Evolutionary Thought
- Definition of evolution: Change in a population's genetic composition over generations, leading to new species.
- Major influences on Darwin:
- Charles Lyell (geology): Earth's gradual changes.
- Thomas Malthus (population): Struggle for existence.
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (incorrect theory): Organisms changing over time.
- Alfred Russel Wallace (independent theory): Natural selection.
- Darwin's observations (HMS Beagle): Evidence from the Galapagos Islands.
- Fossil record:
- Definition and location: Preserved remains/traces, mostly in sedimentary rocks.
- Dating: Relative (position in layers) and absolute (radiometric, tree-rings).
- Incompleteness: Not all organisms fossilize, many fossils are destroyed, and many remain undiscovered.
Homology
- Definition: Similarity in traits due to shared ancestry (structures, genetic sequences).
- Synapomorphy: Shared trait, inherited from the most recent common ancestor, used for phylogenetic trees (evolutionary relationships).
- Differential fitness: Variation in reproductive success based on environment.
- Homology reveals evolutionary pattern; differential fitness reflects an evolutionary process (natural selection).
Darwin's Four Postulates
- Variation, inheritance, differential survival and reproduction, adaptation.
- Source of heritable variation: Mutations, recombination, gene flow.
- Natural selection, fitness, and adaptation are interrelated processes driving evolution.
- Response to climate change: Depends on existing genetic variation and diversity of a population.
Evolutionary Processes
- Hardy-Weinberg Principle and Population Evolution:
- Equilibrium: Constant allele and genotype frequencies without evolution.
- Deriving frequencies: Calculate allele frequencies from genotype frequencies, vice versa, and predict genotype numbers in a population.
- Evolution detection: Comparing observed with expected frequencies.
- Assumptions linked to evolutionary mechanisms.
- Four modes of selection:
- Directional: Favors one extreme trait.
- Stabilizing: Favors intermediate traits.
- Disruptive: Favors both extreme traits.
- Balancing: Favors multiple alleles or phenotypes.
- Character displacement: Directional selection leading to distinct traits in competing species, reducing competition.
- Sexual vs. natural selection:
- Sexual selection: Focuses on traits for mate attraction; trade-offs with survival.
- Natural selection: Focus on survival and adaptation to environment (fitness).
- Genetic drift: Random changes in allele frequencies due to chance events, significant in small populations. Impacts genetic variability.
- Gene flow: Transfer of alleles between populations due to migration; affects genetic variability.
Speciation
- Species concepts:
- Biological (BSC): Reproductive isolation.
- Morphological: Physical traits (simple, fossils).
- Ecological: Niche and ecological role (works for asexual species).
- Phylogenetic (PSC) : Smallest monophyletic group (evolutionary history).
- Recognition (mate recognition): (sexual species)
- Allopatric vs. sympatric speciation:
- Allopatric: Speciation due to geographic isolation.
- Sympatric: Speciation without geographic isolation.
- Reproductive barriers: Prezygotic (before zygote formation) and postzygotic (after) mechanisms preventing interbreeding; essential for speciation.
Phylogeny and History of Life
- Phylogeny: Evolutionary trees showing relationships, derived from morphological and molecular data.
- Testing phylogenies: Statistical methods, comparing data from different sources like fossils, or outgroup data.
- Incompleteness and limitations of phylogenies. Errors due to convergent evolution and traits lost.
Mass Extinctions
- Definition: Large-scale loss of species due to catastrophic events.
- Sixth Mass Extinction (current): Human-driven causes (habitat loss, climate change, overexploitation).
- Adaptive radiation: Rapid diversification after extinctions.
Microbes
- Bacteria and biogeochemical cycles: Essential for nutrient cycling and ecosystem health.
- Horizontal gene transfer in bacteria: Movement of genes between species. (Transformation, conjugation, transduction).
- Archaea: Prokaryotic microorganisms, more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria; often extremophiles.
Eukaryotes ~ Protists
- Endosymbiotic theory for mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts):
- Mitochondria: Aerobic bacteria engulfed; crucial for cellular respiration in all eukaryotes.
- Plastids: Photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria) engulfed; crucial for photosynthesis in plants and green algae/diatoms/red algae.
Plants
- Plant phylogeny: Charophytes (green algae), non-vascular plants (bryophytes), vascular plants, seedless vascular plants (lycophytes & pterydophytes), seed plants (gymnosperms, angiosperms).
- Synapomorphies for each group (specific traits that unite).
- Seed vs. Amniotic egg: Evolutionarily distinct solutions for terrestrial reproduction.
- Ecosystem roles: Support food webs, matter/energy cycling, ecosystem services.
- Community interactions (among plants): Competition herbivory, mutualism, parasitism.
- Ecosystem services of plants: Support other organisms, important ecological services.
Fungi
- Fungal nutrition and interactions: Heterotrophs that externally digest organic matter, diverse interactions.
- Ecosystem role: Decomposers, supporting biogeochemical cycles; mutualisms.
- Fungal reproduction: Asexual and sexual reproduction, complex life stages.
Animals
- Animal phylogeny: Poriferans, eumetazoans, radiata (radial symmetry bilateria (bilateral symmetry), protostomes, deuterostomes, vertebrates, key lineages in vertebrate radiation. Key synapomorphies.
- Animal characteristics: Multicellularity, heterotrophic nutrition, and sexual reproduction.
- Human classification within animal phylogeny (Hominins, Hominidae, anthropoids, primates): Radiation model rather than linear progression.
- Modern human hypothesis relation to other humans: Assimilation model.
Ecology
- Range vs. niche: Range is geographical area; a niche is a species' role in the environment.
- Niches are multidimensional (habitat, food sources, interactions).
- Weather vs. climate: Short-term (weather) vs. long-term (climate) atmospheric conditions.
- Climate and biomes: Climate strongly determines biome characteristics
- Behavior ecology: Proximate vs. ultimate causes of behavior, reciprocity vs. altruism.
- Population ecology: Factors influencing population size (birth/death rates, immigration/emigration), exponential vs. logistic growth, carrying capacity, density-dependent factors (limited resources, disease), and density-independent factors (natural disasters).
- Population response to climate change: Genetic variability, adaptation, selection, and phenotypic plasticity play important roles.
Community Ecology
- Species interactions (mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, competition); impacts on fitness, evolutionary relationships.
- Community structure: Measurement or comparison (species richness, species evenness, diversity indices, trophic structure)
Ecosystem and Global Ecology
- Energy and matter flow: One-way energy flow (producer → consumer) and cycling matter in ecosystems, with trophic levels.
- Biogeochemical cycles: Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus cycles - major pools, modern human impacts (industrialization).
- Climate change: Causes, effects on biogeochemical cycles, organismal responses.
- Biodiversity and conservation: Components (genetic, species, ecosystem). Ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting). Resilience to disturbances linked to biodiversity.
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Description
Test your knowledge on meiosis, including ploidy changes, genetic diversity mechanisms, and Mendel's principles. This quiz covers key concepts related to cell division and inheritance. Perfect for students studying biology and genetics.