Medical Studies Prep Course

• Study notes on Anatomy, Physiology, and Histology.

Anatomical Positions

• Postural position includes standing, sitting, lying down, and turning right or left.
• Orthostatic position is standing upright and lying down supine.
• Fowler's position is a seated position with back support and head elevated.
• Trendelenburg position is a sleeping position with the head lowered and legs elevated.

Anatomical Expressions

• Anterior (ventral) refers to the front side of the body, such as the abdomen being anterior to the spinal cord.
• Posterior (dorsal) refers to the back side of the body, such as the spinal cord being posterior to the stomach.
• Lateral view is from the side of the body.
• Medial view is from the middle of the body, between two legs.
• Deep is away from the surface.
• Superficial is on the surface, superficial veins are viewed through the skin.
• Proximal is near the point of attachment to the trunk or the beginning of a structure.
• Distal is far from the point of attachment to the trunk or the beginning of a structure.
• Inferior is below another structure.
• Superior is above another structure.

Human Skeleton

• Bones protect internal organs, store and release fat and minerals, produce blood cells, facilitate movement, and support the body.
• Cranial bones (8) protect the brain,
• The cranial bones include the frontal bone, two parietal bones, the occipital bone, two temporal bones, the sphenoid bone, and the ethmoid bone.
• There are 14 facial bones.
• Facial bones include two inferior turbinal bones, two lacrimal bones, the mandible, two maxilla bones, two nasal bones, two palatine bones, the vomer, and two zygomatic bones.
• There are 3 ossicles (ear bones): malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).

Joints, Ligaments, and Tendons

• Lateral epicondylosis (tennis elbow) is a painful inflammatory condition affecting tendons joining forearm muscles outside the elbow, resulting from excessive forearm use or twisting.
• Ankylosing spondylitis is an inflammatory disease causing fusion of small spine bones (vertebrae), resulting in a hunched posture and breathing difficulties if ribs are affected.
• Synovial joints include plane/gliding, hinge, pivot, ball and socket, saddle, and ellipsoid/condyloid joints.
• Tendons connect muscle to bone.
• Ligaments connect bone to bone.
• The anterior cruciate ligament connects the femur, tibia, and patella in the knee.

Muscles

• There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
• Skeletal muscle is attached to the skeleton, tendons, and bones and is voluntary.
• Smooth muscle is found in organs, the stomach, and blood vessels and is involuntary.
• Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and is involuntary.
• The largest muscle is the gluteus maximus (buttock).
• The fastest muscle is the eyelid elevator.
• The longest single muscle is the sartorius muscle, stretching from the pelvis to below the knee (more than 15 inches or 40 cm long).
• The smallest muscle is the stapedius, found inside the middle ear and less than 0.04 inches (1 mm) long.
• The strongest muscle is the masseter, which elevates during mastication and can exert a force equivalent to 100 kg (220 lbs).
• Muscles account for 40% of total body weight.
• Actin and myosin in muscle fibers aid in muscle contraction.

Tissues

• The four basic types of tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
• Epithelial tissue functions in covering, secretion, absorption, and sensitivity.
• Connective tissue supports cartilage, bone, blood, and fibrous tissue of ligaments (chondrocytes).
• Muscle tissue functions in movement.
• Nervous tissue functions in control and integration
• Epithelium tissue is present at sites of rapid diffusion, like the lining of lung alveoli.
• Endothelium tissue is present in the lining of blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries).
• Mesothelium is present at sites where minimal activity occurs, such as Bowman's capsule in the kidney and linings of major body cavities.
• Connective tissue functions in support, protection, insulation, and transportation, and is characterized by a large extracellular matrix.
• The four classes of connective tissue are connective tissue proper, cartilage, osseous tissue, and blood.
• Connective tissue proper has loose, adipose, areolar storage, and support for organs/vessels, as well as dense regular and elastic tissues.
• Cartilage provides cushion, structure, and support and is laid down before bone.
• Osseous (bone) tissue brings in beef bone, compact rigid, and spongy marrow.
• Blood consists of RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and plasma matrix.

Gastrointestinal System

• The tongue has bony attachments (styloid process, hyoid bone) attached to the mouth floor by the frenulum.
• The posterior exit from the mouth is guarded by a ring of palatine/lingual tonsils.
• Ducted salivary glands open at different spots in the mouth.
• Saliva amylase hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into maltose.
• The Esophagus: Is a roughly 10-inch muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach.
• Food moves through the esophagus through peristalsis.
• The Cardioesophageal sphincter is guarding the entrance to the stomach from the esophagus.
• The Pyloric sphincter is guarding the outlet is better defined.
• The Fundus, body, and pylorus are defined as unique regions of the stomach.
• The Surface area in the stomach is increased by rugae, which act as temporary food storage.
• Gastric acid production is stimulated by vagal stimulation, histamine release, and gastrin.
• Vagal stimulation: The vagal nerve innervates parietal cells and stimulates H+ secretion directly.
• Histamine release: Histamine is released from mast cells in the gastric mucosa and diffuses to nearby parietal cells.
• Gastrin: Release happens in response to eating a meal (protein), stimulating parietal cells to secrete H+.
• Pathophysiology of gastric acid secretions causes gastric ulcers, duodenal ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
• Gastric Emptying: Gastric emptying time is the time that it takes for food to empty that stomach and enter the small intestine
• The rate of Gastric Emptying is fastest if gastric content is isotonic.
• Fat inhibits gastric emptying time.
• Prokinetic drugs (metoclopramide, domperidone) decrease gastric emptying time.
• The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
• The Duodenum is the initial part, it the C-shaped 10" (inch) long and curves around the pancreas head and the entry of common bile duct.
• The highest drug absorption happens in the body takes place here in the Duodenum
• The Pancreas are large glandular organ attached near the stomach.
• The Pancreas secretes intestinal enzymes (pancreatic lipase, amylase, protease) for carbohydrate digestion.
• Bile secretions include bile salts, bilirubin, phospholipids, and cholesterol.
• The Jejunum is 8 to10 feet long.
• Most of the food absorption happens in the jejunum.
• Secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce watery fluid, high in bicarbonates.
• Pancreozymin stimulates the pancreas to produce a viscous fluid low in bicarbonate.
• The Ileum is 12 feet long, accumulating lymphoid tissue (Peyer's patches) towards the far end of the small intestine .
• The large intestine is also known as the colon.
• The Jejunum which terminates at the caecum.
• The Large Intestine is the highest basic, or pH.
• Animals digest cellulose in the colon.
• The colon consists of higher flora and fauna in the GI tract.
• 90 to 99% anaerobic bacteria.
• B. fragilis and C. difficile are anaerobic; and E. coli is aerobic.
• Colon bacterial produce vitamin K.

Nervous System

• The Nervous system is split into the peripheral and central nervous systems.
• The peripheral nervous system is split into sensory (somatic) and autonomic components
• Cerebrum: The Cerebrum the largest part of brain and controls voluntary (Think and decide what to say) and involuntary movements (autonomic functions).
• Brain stem: Is the posterior part of the brain consist of pons and medulla oblongata and mid brain.
• Cerebellum: Controls Gait and balances and modify body movements (Motor) .
• Spinal cord: Consists of Vertebral column, epidural space, meninges, spinal cord, dorsal vertebra, and spinal nerve.
• Thalamus: is affecting sensory levels, awareness and alertness.
• Corpus Collasum: Connects and communicates between right and left hemisphere of brain.
• The mesolimbic pathways are in the frontal lobes.
• The medulla oblongata is in Temporal lobe.
• The Frontal lobe operates motor, cognitive, behavioral, and arousal functions.
• The Temporal lobe is responsible for auditory, speech, memory information retrieval.
• Brain stem (breathing, digestion, heart control, blood vessel control, alertness)
• The Occipital lobe visual reception and interpretation
• The Parietal Lobe is responsible for processing sensory input, sensory discrimination, body orientation, somatic area
• Wernicke's area: In temporal lobe language comprehension.
• Vestibular system: Reflex adjustment of head, eyes and postural muscles provide a stable visual image and steady posture.
• The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) circulates outside of the brain through cavities called ventricles.
• The Blood-brain barrier (BBB,) is a barrier between cerebral capillary blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• BBB Capillary linings contain enzymes like monoamine oxidase (MAO) and cholinesterase to prevent catecholamines, serotonin, and acetylcholine from entering the brain.
• Drugs that across the BBB: Rifampin, Cefuroxime sodium, Cefotaxime, Carbapenam, Atropine, physostigmine, Diphenhydramine, and ethanol.
• Consists of: Dendrite, cell body, axon, mylein sheath and synapse
• Myelin sheath damage of nerve cells is associated with Multiple Sclerosis

Respiratory System

• The upper respiratory tract comprises the Sinus a cavity in; and around the nasal cavity, the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.
• Disorders that affect the Upper respiratory tract consist of: Acute rhinitis, pharyngitis, tonsilitis, and laryngititis
• A Common, but is NOT a life-threatening diseease, cause of most severe discomfort.
• The lower respiratory system, include the following organ, or lower respiratory tract: The trachea, the bronchi, the bronchioles, the alveoli, the lungs.
• Disease: Asthma, COPD is Emphysema and Bronchitis.
• Cystic Fibrosis: An inherited disorder, autosonal recessive, results in the body to produce abnornally thick and sticky mucus, caused by mutation on chromosome 7.
• The Mutation in chromosome 7, leads to secretion of thick mucus, lodge in lungs, liver and pancreas.
• Treatment for Cystic Fiborsis: there is no cure but medication or treatment can aid in the ease of the sympyom, close montiory and early aggressive intervention is important.
• Managing cystic fibrosis is complex, so consider getting treatment at a center with a multispecialty team of doctors and medical professionals trained in CF to evaluate and treat your condition.
• Goals to treat Cystics Fibrosis include prevents and control infections in the lungs, removal of unwanted mucus in the lungs, and treatment of a blockage for intestinal
• The goal of treating CF include: Prevents and control, remove mucus from lungs, treat intestinal, and provide adequate nutrition
• Lung Capacities: Is the total value amount of air the lungs accommodate, the normal value is about 6,000 mL(4-6 L)
• Tidal volume: ( symbol as V₁ or TV) the air a person inhales
• Residual volume: The value or amount remains after being maxed to inspiration
• Forced expiratory volume (FEV1): The volume of air that can be expired in 1 second after maximal inspiration.
• Measured by Spirometer: Volume to measure at the end of the test it should be 1 seconds.
• Peak flow meter: Severity of asthma for outpatients

Urinary System

• Disease related to the Urinary
• 1. infections: Organ- urethra, ureter, bladder, kidney
• Infection sites: Urethritis infection of urethra, Ureteritis infection of ureter, Bladder infection of the bladder which usually causes cystitis, Pyelonephritis pain in costovertebral
• Factors: In vagina where a infection increases, in vaginal, and/or Colonize colon spread to UTI
• Agents: Most common - UTI E.coli
• Cystitis Most UTI -E.coli 80-90%
• Symptoms of UTI: Internal dysuria, frequency, Suprapubic, discombfort and urgency.
• Complications: Structural, functional and virtually episodes the the infection of
• Complicate - E.coli UTI 50%,
• Benign Prostatic occurs in the bladder

The Eye and Ear

• Cornea: Corneal in front of the eyeball, Is a transparent opening known

• Pupil: Passing light through the cornea, known as the pupil

• Iris: Pupils opens or can closed based based on dilation of the iris

• Ciliary muscles: The lens attached to the ciliary muscles

• Ciliary gland: secrete aqueous humor,

• Retina: Surface in known Inner side of the eye,

• Macula: Small central area of retina,

• Optic nerve: The networking of nerves - bundled together to form Optic

• Disk: Cell is bundled back most by the end of the eye, known as Blind-spot and do not present, cone, rod.

• Myopia: Coming light from a far gets close before the gets the back, error, eye refractive, known as myopica short sighted”

• Hyperopia: Gets incoming light for and coming light far has not gets time for coming light, to back error to back, known far sighted

• Retina: Two types of photoreceptors, rods, and comes

• The eye has to form the image at Retina

• Eye, Anterior Chamber – Aqueous

• Eye, Posterior Chamber- Vitreous

• Glaucoma: Angle cause higher increase and cause due to glaucoma: increased aqueous humor produced increasing, IOP, decreasing aqueous humor decreasing Schlemm ,Ciliary: Secation, tissue .

• Different angle : Open (increase the blockage) or Closed (closed angle increase)

• Treatment: beta blockers, prostaglandin, Alpha Agonist, CA, Choliergic , Osmostic

• Cataract: Clouded vision, decreased Acuity, OD – Right oculus, OS - Left, OU Both

• The key Parts the the Ear are the out, middle and inner part.

• The key disorders of the ear are: Otitis and Acute Externa.

• To administar Ear Drops, with patients that infants and toddles, the ear should be pulled down and in older patients, lie to their unaffected side for 5-10 mintues

• the terms:

• AD/AU = Right, AS/AU = Left, AU = Both

• Which of the following does NOT open into respiratory tract?

• Frontal sinus