Medical Pathology Quiz

Foundational Concepts

• Pathophysiology is the study of abnormal bodily functions in cells, tissues, and organs caused by disease.
• Pathology examines the structural and functional changes.
• Physiology studies the function of the body.
• Etiology is the cause of the disease, such as bacteria, viruses, trauma or inherited genes.
• Pathogenesis describes the evolution of a disease.
• A disease is described as acute or chronic and physiological dysfunction, symptoms and signs may be present in one or more body systems.
• Clinical manifestations relate to symptoms and observable signs.
• Morphology is the shape and structure of cells and tissues.
• Histology is the study of tissues at a cellular level.
• A syndrome is a group of symptoms associated with a specific disease.

Clinical Course of Disease

• Diagnosis is identifying a disease via signs and symptoms.
• Prognosis predicts the probable outcome and recovery chance.
• Morbidity describes the effects an illness has on a person's life.
• Epidemiology studies the occurrence of diseases in a population.
• Acute disease is severe but resolves on its own.
• Chronic disease is continuous and long-term.
• Subacute disease falls between acute and chronic, it is not as severe as acute but lasts longer than acute.

Three Fundamental Types of Prevention

• Primary prevention aims to prevent disease occurrence via risk factor removal.
• Secondary prevention identifies disease early, when it is asymptomatic, to provide treatment measures which may cure or stop the disease's progression.
• Tertiary prevention focuses on interventions to prevent further deterioration or complications in existing disease.

The Plasma Membrane

• Glycoproteins act as surface markers (antigens) to distinguish between self and non-self-cells on the plasma membrane.
• Antigens are markers on plasma membranes.
• Red Blood Cells identify blood type via surface antigens.

Mitochondria

• Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, converting glucose into energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen via cellular respiration.
• Anaerobic respiration forms lactic acid as a byproduct.

Lysosomes

• Lysosomes (cell digestive system) contain enzymes that break down worn-out cellular parts and foreign substances.
• Enzymes function optimally in an acidic environment (pH 5).
• Lysosome deficiencies may lead to the accumulation of harmful substances.

Peroxisomes and Proteasomes

• Peroxisomes contain an enzyme that neutralizes and degrades free radicals and converts hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.
• Peroxisomes degrade long chain fatty acids.
• Adrenoleukodystrophy is a disorder involving dysfunctional peroxisomes.
• Proteasomes break down proteins (proteolysis).

Ribosomes

• Ribosomes assemble proteins using mRNA templates.
• In severe hypoxia, ribosomal RNA production stops.

Golgi Apparatus

• Substances produced in the ER are processed and packaged in the Golgi apparatus.
• Proteins that combine with carbohydrates are glycoproteins.

Microtubules and Filaments

• Microtubules and filaments form the cytoskeleton.

Nucleus

• The nucleus contains DNA instructions for protein synthesis.
• It contains genes and enables cellular function.
• mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA are crucial for protein production inside the cell.

Cellular Adaptation

• Cells adapt to stressors by altering size, number, and type of cells.

Atrophy

• Atrophy is a decrease in cell size caused by a decrease in workload, oxygen consumption or adverse environments.

Hypertrophy

• Hypertrophy is an increase in cell size triggered by increased workload.
• It is often seen in cardiac and skeletal muscle.
• Cellular adaptations, involving mechanisms such as increased synthesis of filaments, enzymes and increased energy production, may occur in response to demands.

Hyperplasia

• Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in a tissue as a response to appropriate stimulus.
• This can occur in tissues capable of mitosis such as the epidermis and glandular tissue.
• It can also occur due to hormonal stimulation or effects of growth factors.

Metaplasia

• Metaplasia is the replacement of one cell type with another (e.g., squamous cells replacing columnar cells in respiratory tract).
• It usually occurs in response to chronic irritations or inflammation and is reversible when the stimulus is removed.

Dysplasia

• Dysplasia involves disordered cell growth.
• It often presents with cells varying in size, shape, and organization.
• Dysplasia is associated with chronic irritation and inflammation.
• Irritation causes the abnormal cell growth.

Neoplasia

• Neoplasia refers to uncontrolled cell growth.

Cell Injury

• Cell injuries are caused by physical agents (mechanical forces, electricity), biological agents (infections), radiation, nutritional imbalances, chemicals.
• Intracellular accumulations result from damaged cells which can't readily remove products like proteins and pigments.
• Hypoxia is oxygen deprivation, can damage cells.
• Shearing injury is the pressure resulting from the blood flow against blood vessels, contributing to atherosclerotic injury.

Increased Intracellular Calcium

• High calcium levels in cells activate enzymes potentially damaging the cell.
• Calcium serves as a secondary messenger, initiating cascades that lead to further cellular damage.

Arteriosclerosis and Aortic Sclerosis

• Arteriosclerosis involves calcium buildup within aged plaques in arteries that could break off and travel.
• Aortic sclerosis involves thickening and narrowing of heart valves.

Necrosis

• Necrosis is cell death due to disease.
• Different types of necrosis are distinguished by how cellular material changes (e.g., coagulative, liquefactive necrosis).

Gangrene

• Gangrene is tissue death primarily due to a lack of blood flow.
• Forms like wet gangrene (tissue liquefied) and dry gangrene result from varying circumstances.

Carcinogenesis

• Carcinogenesis is the development of cancer. Initiation, promotion, and progression are its stages.
• Hereditary, oncogenes, and carcinogens are associated factors in carcinogenesis.

Benign vs Malignant Cancers

• Benign tumors grow slower, are usually localized, and resemble the host tissue.
• Malignant cancers are rapidly growing, invasive, and spread (metastasize).

Clinical Manifestations

• Clinical manifestations include changes in bowel habits, sores that don't heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lumps, and others, which are indicators of potential diseases.