LAW

Consequences in Medical Ethics

• Ethical dilemmas often involve weighing consequences against moral obligations; an example is a doctor's obligation to truthfully disclose a cancer diagnosis.
• Kantian ethics emphasizes that one must not lie, regardless of potential positive outcomes for the patient.

Tradition-Based Theories

Divine Command Theory (DCT)

• Moral obligations are derived directly from God's will.
• Offers a communal moral framework through shared beliefs with spiritual leaders.
• Moral actions align with God's nature, creating a universal moral law.
• Criticized for ambiguity regarding whether morality exists independently of divine commands, leading to interpretation issues among different religious texts.
• DCT example: A pharmacist advising a religious couple on abortion would consider their beliefs in presenting options.

Relationship-Based Theories

• "What Would Jesus Do?" exemplifies ethical decisions based on relational morality, prioritizing patient autonomy.
• Ethical use of placebos in research hinges on informed consent, contrasting deceptive practices that undermine patient trust.

Confidentiality in Healthcare

• Patient privacy is paramount, as highlighted in the Hippocratic Oath and HIPAA (1996).
• Confidentiality must often be balanced against other ethical responsibilities.

Human Value and Personhood

• Personhood denotes membership in the moral community, implying moral rights and responsibilities.
• Cognitive adults are traditionally seen as persons; other candidates include certain animals and individuals with cognitive disabilities.
• Scriptural perspectives affirm human dignity, suggesting humans are made in God's image.

Conception and Personhood

• The view holds that personhood begins at conception and persists throughout an individual’s life.
• Clinical implications arise for healthcare policies and practices related to organ donation and patient treatment.
• Ontological personalism asserts all humans are persons with intrinsic value from conception, rejecting any notion of “human non-persons.”

Empirical vs. Ontological Concepts

• The empirical view equates humans to a collection of parts, while the ontological perspective sees a human as a distinct substance.
• Continuous essence exists despite physical changes, as demonstrated by the analogy of dismantling and restoring a car.

Argument From Continuity

• The body undergoes continual cellular replacement, yet personal identity persists due to memory and continuity over time.
• The common-sense argument maintains that a fetus remains a person, given no change in essential nature.

Ethics of Contraception

Normal Reproductive Physiology

• The corpus luteum regulates menstrual cycles and pregnancy; it degenerates without fertilization, leading to menstruation.

Ethics Debate on Contraception

• Religious objections stem from beliefs against interfering with natural procreation.
• Conservative Catholics oppose contraception as morally corrupt, while other faiths exhibit varying acceptance.
• Assumptions about human life sanctity influence views on contraception and the morality of early embryo destruction.

Definitions

• Contraceptives prevent pregnancy by blocking ovulation or sperm access; abortifacients may interrupt pregnancy or prevent implantation but definitions are contested.

Principle of Double Effect (PDE)

• Highlights intentions behind moral decisions; actions causing unintended harm may be permissible if aimed at a beneficial outcome.
• Medical case discussions emphasize the necessity of preserving life while alleviating suffering.

Quality of Life Considerations

• Quality of life (QOL) is subjective and determined best by the patient, not solely by healthcare providers.

Brain Death and End-of-Life Issues

• Brain death is defined by the irreversible loss of all brain functions, guiding organ transplantation ethics.
• The Harvard Criteria and The Dead Donor Rule form the basis for identifying death in transplant contexts.

Withdrawing Treatments and Medical Futility

• Withholding and withdrawing treatments hold equal moral weight in end-of-life situations.
• Terminology shift from ordinary/extraordinary to proportionate/disproportionate clarifies treatment goals and ethical decisions.
• Medical futility suggests that while some treatments may be ineffective, care should always have value.

Assisted Suicide Overview

• Legal context varies, with specific requirements (age, residency, terminal illness) governing patient-assisted suicide laws.
• Social context considers technological advancements and their impact on quality of life versus prolonged suffering.