Mechanisms of Antibiotics Resistance
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Questions and Answers

What was the first antibiotic discovered to be effective against which bacteria?

  • Fungi, especially candida
  • Gram-negative bacteria, especially E. coli
  • Protozoa, especially plasmodium
  • Gram-positive bacteria, especially staphylococci and streptococci (correct)

    • What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance among bacterial pathogens?

  • Increased difficulty in treating infections (correct)
  • Reduced use of antibiotics in medicine
  • Decreased toxicity of antibiotics to humans
  • Increased production of antibiotics

    • What is the result of the development of thousands of variants and analogues of antibiotics?

  • Reduced production of antibiotics
  • Increased resistance to antibiotics
  • Increased use of antibiotics in medicine
  • Varying effects on different infectious organisms and less toxicity to humans (correct)

    • Which bacterium's resistance to penicillin in the 1980s exemplifies the detrimental effects of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Streptococcus pneumoniae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the evolution of bacteria causing common infections to be resistant to most or all available antibiotics?

    <p>Infections become harder to treat and increase the likelihood of spreading to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern related to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Antibiotics becoming ineffective treatments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of gene transfer in conjugation?

    <p>Using a pilus to transfer a plasmid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the current treatment failure rate in patients with pneumococcal meningitis in the US due to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>38%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the enzyme produced by some bacteria that breaks down the -lactam ring of antibacterial drugs?

    <p>Penicillinase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the exchange of genetic material between bacteria through mobile DNA packages?

    <p>Horizontal gene transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of antibiotic resistance on health insurance companies and governments that subsidize healthcare costs?

    <p>Increased medical costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance in efflux pump systems?

    <p>Expelling antibiotics from the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>When bacteria change in a way that reduces or eliminates the effectiveness of antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of bacterial cells becoming competent to receive DNA?

    <p>Artificial competence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the first antibiotic discovered in 1928?

    <p>Penicillin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of two-component regulatory systems in efflux pump systems?

    <p>To control the expression of efflux pump genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of hospital admissions due to adverse effects of antibiotic therapy?

    <p>10%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the increased cost of newer antibiotics?

    <p>They are available in intravenous form only</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the overexpression of efflux pumps in bacteria?

    <p>Multidrug resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the current focus of research in efflux pump systems?

    <p>Developing efflux pump inhibitors to increase antibiotic effectiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the unrestricted use of broad-spectrum antibiotics on the human body?

    <p>It alters the microbial ecology of the human body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of many efflux pumps that leads to multidrug resistance?

    <p>Broad substrate specificity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the process where a microorganism acquires genes from another without being the offspring of that microorganism?

    <p>Horizontal gene transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the incorporation of naked DNA into a bacterial cell's chromosome?

    <p>Transformation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of gene transfer that involves transferring genes from one bacterium to another as 'naked' DNA?

    <p>Transformation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of antibiotic resistance on the natural history of diseases?

    <p>It has changed the natural history of diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of enzymatic inactivation of antibiotics?

    <p>Reduced effectiveness of antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of antibiotic resistance is highly effective and has led to bacterial resistance to certain antibiotic groups?

    <p>Enzymatic inactivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the enzyme produced by MRSA super bacteria that splits the complex before acetylating the antibiotic?

    <p>Transpeptidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of macrolide antibiotics like erythromycin and clarithromycin?

    <p>Inhibiting protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of beta-lactamase enzymes produced by bacteria?

    <p>Breaking the beta-lactam ring of antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of target modification in high-level Tcr Mpr bacteria?

    <p>A 100-fold decrease in antibiotic potency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of erythromycin esterase (EreA) in macrolide resistance?

    <p>Catalyzing the hydrolytic cleavage of the lactone ring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance resulting from the presence of Erm genes and their encoded enzymes?

    <p>Ribosome methylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the production of beta-lactamase enzymes by bacteria?

    <p>Inactivation of antibiotics before they reach their target</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance resulting from the modification of target enzymes?

    <p>Weak positive selection process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism by which Kmr bacteria are resistant to aminoglycoside antibiotics?

    <p>By acquiring a phosphotransferase enzyme that inactivates them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase enzyme on the antibiotic chloramphenicol?

    <p>It decreases the binding affinity of chloramphenicol to its target</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of action of the erythromycin resistant methylase enzyme?

    <p>It methylates the target site of erythromycin, making it inaccessible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of aminoglycoside modifying enzymes on the binding of aminoglycosides to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome?

    <p>It decreases the binding affinity of aminoglycosides to the 30S subunit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of high-level resistance to vancomycin in Enterococcus faecium?

    <p>Substitution of cell wall precursors with those that have no affinity for vancomycin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of biofilm formation in the development of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>It reduces the efficacy of antibiotics by encasing the bacteria in an extracellular polymeric matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of phenotypic changes in biofilm bacteria on the efficacy of antibiotics?

    <p>It decreases the efficacy of antibiotics by making the bacteria less susceptible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of aminoglycoside resistance in P.aeruginosa biofilms?

    <p>Inhibition of aminoglycoside uptake by high-affinity mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the acquisition of resistance genes by biofilm bacteria on the efficacy of antibiotics?

    <p>It decreases the efficacy of antibiotics by making the bacteria less susceptible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of target modification in the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics?

    <p>Reversible target site modifications that decrease the binding affinity of an antibiotic to its target</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are antibiotics sometimes ineffective against biofilm infections?

    <p>As a result of physicochemical interactions between the drug and the biofilm matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the high antibiotic resistance in biofilms?

    <p>Expression of specific genes different from planktonic cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the extracellular matrix of biofilms impact antibiotic effectiveness?

    <p>It absorbs the antibiotics preventing them from reaching their target cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are biofilm infections challenging to treat with antibiotics?

    <p>They secrete substances that act as barriers to antimicrobial agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does nutrient limitation in biofilm cells have on antibiotic tolerance?

    <p>Increases antibiotic tolerance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of antibiotic resistance, why are medical devices frequent targets for colonization and infection?

    <p>Medical devices provide surfaces for biofilm attraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the proximity of resistance play in the persistence of biofilm infections?

    <p>It increases the cost and reduces risks of recurrent infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do biofilms differ from planktonic cells in terms of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Planktonic cells express different genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does antibiotics resistance in biofilms lead to ineffective treatments?

    <p>Imbalance between slow-releasing antibiotics and rapid bacterial proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are high antibiotic dose strategies generally less preferred in treating biofilm infections?

    <p>Higher risk of side effects and drug toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of efflux pumps in bacteria?

    <p>They transport substrates across a lipid membrane actively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bacterial efflux pump system is known for moving tetracycline out of bacterial cells?

    <p>RND system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of the MtrCDE system in Neisseria gonorrhoeae?

    <p>Promoting virulence and colonization in the human body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the mechanism of efflux pumps in bacteria?

    <p>They can be found exclusively in Gram-positive bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the MtrR protein play in controlling the MtrCDE operon?

    <p>Binds antibacterial compounds to repress MtrCDE operon expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is responsible for energizing the efflux pump process in bacteria?

    <p>Cytoplamic membrane protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bacterial organism has a well-known efflux pump system for moving tetracycline out of its cells?

    <p>Escherichia coli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the adaptor protein in efflux pump systems?

    <p>Linking the efflux pump to the periplasmic protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism enables efflux pumps in bacteria to transport substrates across the cell envelope?

    <p>Proton motive force</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do efflux pumps support bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents?

    <p>By maintaining a more toxic intracellular environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of an antiporter in an efflux pump system?

    <p>To exchange antibiotics with less harmful substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bacteria recognize and transport antibiotics through the efflux mechanism?

    <p>Through a specific or non-specific substrate recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the five classes of efflux systems in bacteria?

    <p>They use different energy sources and transporters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the energy-dependent mechanism of efflux in bacteria?

    <p>To remove antibiotics from the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common type of antibiotic efflux system in bacteria?

    <p>MF superfamily</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do efflux pumps in bacteria transport antibiotics across the membrane?

    <p>Through an active transport process using ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for physicians prescribing antibiotics for viral infections?

    <p>To satisfy patient expectations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated percentage of hospital prescriptions that are not optimally effective?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which country did a study find that 57% of the population had self-medicated with antibiotics?

    <p>Macedonia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the agricultural use of antibiotics?

    <p>To promote growth and prevent disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of delaying antibiotic prescription for conditions where they may be necessary?

    <p>Increased morbidity and mortality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the misuse and overuse of antibiotics in households?

    <p>Increased antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of antibiotic prescriptions in developing countries?

    <p>Non-essential and incorrect doses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of education campaigns on antibiotic use?

    <p>Reduced antibiotic use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of self-medication with antibiotics?

    <p>Increased selection pressure for resistant strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern related to antibiotic use in animal agriculture?

    <p>Poor animal husbandry practices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic inactivation by enzymes such as beta lactamases?

    <p>Rendering the antibiotic useless</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a contributing factor to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Misuse of antibiotics, particularly in unsupervised medication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the selection of resistant strains of bacteria due to antibiotic use?

    <p>Patients will suffer life-threatening complications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concern regarding antibiotic use in animal husbandry?

    <p>Antibiotic-resistant strains developed in animals can be transferred to humans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic-induced gene mutations?

    <p>Inherited mutations in the bacteria's genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the widespread use of antibiotics?

    <p>The development of 'superbugs' resistant to most antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of the AcrAB-TolC efflux system in Escherichia coli?

    <p>Recognizing and expelling various substrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following mechanisms is NOT associated with the QacA multidrug efflux pump in Staphylococcus?

    <p>Inactivation of antibiotics by enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the misuse of antibiotics in human medicine and animal husbandry?

    <p>Antibiotic-resistant bacteria will pose significant problems to medical health and the economy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ribosomal protection mechanism in Bacillus?

    <p>Transfer of an ATP-binding ribosomal protein and phosphorylation of a hydrolytic enzyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the overuse of antibiotics?

    <p>The development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following antibiotics is NOT affected by the production of beta-lactamase enzymes?

    <p>Erythromycin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of the SatAB efflux system in E. faecium?

    <p>Recognizing and expelling various substrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the use of antibiotics in preventing diseases in animals?

    <p>Antibiotic-resistant bacteria will develop and pose a risk to human health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of antibiotic modification in bacteria?

    <p>Altered target site of the antibiotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of the carbapenemase enzymes produced by certain Enterobacteriaceae?

    <p>Hydrolyzing carbapenems to inactive metabolites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of an antibiotic modification mechanism?

    <p>Acetylation of tetracycline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of the erythromycin esterase enzyme in bacteria?

    <p>Splitting the antibiotic into inactive products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of changes in porin proteins in bacteria?

    <p>Channels too small for antibiotic molecules to enter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to antibiotic resistance due to the misuse of antibiotics?

    <p>Insufficient knowledge on proper antibiotic use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on the health system?

    <p>Reduced support for good health policy making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for limited access to adequate healthcare among certain groups?

    <p>Poverty and limited access to resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of respondents who believe the best treatment for a cold is antibiotics?

    <p>25%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of patients' unrealistic expectations of antibiotics?

    <p>Reduced willingness to pay for antibiotic research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to the lack of understanding of antibiotic resistance among health workers and policymakers?

    <p>Complexity of antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the public in overseeing and improving the health system and policies related to antibiotic use?

    <p>To play a role in improving the health system and policies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on the health system and policy making?

    <p>Reduced support for good health policy making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to the misuse of antibiotics?

    <p>Insufficient knowledge on proper antibiotic use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of reduced antibiotic use in the health system?

    <p>Reduced antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance in developing countries?

    <p>Higher disease and mortality rates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concern regarding the spread of resistant strains from developing countries to developed countries?

    <p>High morbidity and mortality rates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of comparing antibiotic resistance in different regions?

    <p>A global view of antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the risk of importing resistant strains of bacteria through international travel?

    <p>High risk of transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concern regarding the spread of infectious diseases through global travel and migration?

    <p>Increased disease transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to the high rates of antibiotic resistance in developing countries?

    <p>Inadequate infection prevention and control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the transmission of resistant strains from developing countries to developed countries?

    <p>High morbidity and mortality rates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the risk of refugees and immigrants returning to their countries of origin carrying resistant strains of bacteria?

    <p>High risk of transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of poor hand hygiene in healthcare settings?

    <p>Higher rates of infection transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concern regarding the importation of infectious diseases through international travel?

    <p>Increased disease transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of sterilization in medical and surgical procedures?

    <p>To eliminate or destroy all forms of microbial life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria across borders?

    <p>High morbidity and mortality rates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of eliminating or destroying pathogenic organisms using chemicals on inanimate objects and surfaces?

    <p>Disinfection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for low adherence to hand hygiene practices in healthcare settings?

    <p>Skin irritation and dryness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concern regarding the rise in international travel and commerce?

    <p>Increased disease transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of poor sanitation and hygiene practices in healthcare settings?

    <p>Higher rates of infection transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to the spread of infectious diseases across international borders?

    <p>Inadequate infection prevention and control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the high rates of resistant tuberculosis in developing countries?

    <p>Inadequate infection prevention and control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of the World Health Organization's 'five moments for hand hygiene' framework?

    <p>Improving hand hygiene compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of failure to prevent and control infections in healthcare settings?

    <p>Higher rates of infection transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason large pharmaceutical companies are not developing new antibiotics?

    <p>The market does not value a novel antibiotic at a price that can offset its development costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated cost of developing new antibiotics?

    <p>$90 million</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of labeling restrictions on new antibiotics?

    <p>Decreased treatable population and potential revenue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do large pharmaceutical firms find it difficult to compete with generic antibiotics?

    <p>New antibiotics are not superior in terms of price and efficacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of stringent regulatory requirements on antibiotic development?

    <p>Increased development cost</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the decline in pharmaceutical investment in antibiotic development?

    <p>A future shortfall of new antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of antibiotic resistant genes in water systems?

    <p>Environmental bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main mechanism of gene transfer in the environment?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of transformation in the context of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>It allows for the exchange of genetic information between different species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the presence of antibiotic resistant genes in the environment?

    <p>Increased antibiotic resistance in human pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of mobile genetic elements in the transmission of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>They facilitate the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary strategy for reducing the spread of antibiotic resistance genes?

    <p>Reducing the transmission of resistant pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>Horizontal gene transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of antibiotic residues in the environment?

    <p>They can be biodegraded into metabolites with greater biological activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern related to the use of older antibiotics to treat resistant infections?

    <p>They may accelerate the development of resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary strategy for preventing the further spread of antibiotic resistance genes?

    <p>Blocking transmission from known resistant pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of horizontal gene transfer in conjugation?

    <p>Via direct contact through a conjugation pilus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of interrupted DNA transfer during conjugation?

    <p>No resistance gene is transferred</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of antibiotic resistance genes in the donor cell?

    <p>They are generally detrimental to the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of mutation and selection in bacteria?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of inadequate surveillance and monitoring of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>The lack of valuable resistance pattern data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the selection of mutated bacteria?

    <p>The mutated bacteria outcompete non-mutated bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of conjugative plasmids?

    <p>They can transfer themselves and non-conjugative plasmids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance without selective pressure?

    <p>The mutated bacterium has a significant fitness advantage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of transduction?

    <p>Through bacteriophage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the spread of antibiotic resistance genes?

    <p>The spread of antibiotic resistance to other bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated annual cost of antibiotic resistance in the United States?

    <p>US $4-5 billion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the projected number of MRSA-attributable deaths annually in the United States by 2020 if no alternatives are found?

    <p>55,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of antibiotic stewardship programs?

    <p>To reduce selective pressures that drive antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of prolonged illness in patients with resistant infections?

    <p>Amplified transmission of resistant strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated additional annual cost of treating resistant infections in the European Union?

    <p>€1 billion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of informative-based antibiotic stewardship programs?

    <p>To increase prescribers' knowledge about current antibiotic recommendations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the lack of effective therapy for resistant organisms?

    <p>Treatment failure and death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the projected number of P.aeruginosa-attributable deaths annually in the United States by 2020 if no alternatives are found?

    <p>35,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of antibiotic stewardship programs?

    <p>Optimizing patient outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of increased antibiotic consumption in patients with resistant infections?

    <p>Amplified transmission of resistant strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary challenge in monitoring antimicrobial resistance in the community sector?

    <p>Poor coordination and enforcement of data collection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the lack of understanding of resistance patterns in the general population?

    <p>Most data comes from studies of hospital patients or high-risk groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the link between antibiotic exposure and resistance in common pathogens?

    <p>Emergence of resistant strains in the clinical setting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance on patient outcomes?

    <p>Increased morbidity and mortality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation in monitoring the impact of antibiotic use on resistance?

    <p>Limited availability of antibiotic use data in humans and animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary challenge in establishing a clear global picture of antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Large disparities in surveillance data availability and quality between regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated cost of treating antibiotic-resistant infections in the United States?

    <p>$3.1 billion annually</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for increased healthcare costs due to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Prolonged hospital stays and alternative medications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the limited knowledge about the volume and pattern of antibiotic use in humans and animals?

    <p>Limited availability of antibiotic use data in humans and animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on the healthcare system?

    <p>Increased hospital days and complicated surgical procedures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of monitoring resistance at local, national, and international levels?

    <p>Establishing a clear global picture of antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the lack of data on resistance rates in the community sector?

    <p>Inadequate surveillance systems in the community sector</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to antibiotic resistance in certain populations?

    <p>Lower socio-economic status</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the switch to outpatient treatment of common childhood ear infections with amoxicillin?

    <p>Reduced antibiotic selection of penicillin-resistant strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on disease transmission?

    <p>Increased risk of disease transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of treatment failures due to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Increased morbidity and mortality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary challenge in confirming the link between antibiotic exposure and resistance?

    <p>Antibiotic-resistant strains are often less virulent than their susceptible counterparts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated number of additional deaths due to antibiotic resistance at an average level of resistance?

    <p>100,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance on the economy?

    <p>Increased healthcare costs and lost productivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance on public health?

    <p>Increased risk of disease outbreaks and epidemics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key hindrance to the economic viability of producing new antibiotics?

    <p>Potential resistance leading to drug ineffectiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception associated with resistance genes in the environment?

    <p>They exhibit the same behavior as pollutants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do many pharmaceutical companies opt for more lucrative therapeutic agents over antibiotic research?

    <p>Higher chance of regulatory approval for non-antibiotic drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes significantly to the complexity of developing new antibiotics according to the text?

    <p>Similarities in costs and risks with anti-cancer drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the widespread use of antibiotics play in selecting for antimicrobial resistance?

    <p>Accelerating the evolution of harmless organisms into pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a factor contributing to regulatory complexity in the development of new antibiotics in comparison to other pharmaceuticals?

    <p>High cost of conducting clinical trials for new antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a distinguishing feature of antibiotics compared to other pharmaceuticals in terms of economic return?

    <p>Antibiotics have higher cost-effectiveness requirements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is expected to happen with resistance genetic elements in the case of strong antibiotic selection over time?

    <p>They will concentrate and fixate in specific bacterial species and strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do many companies find antibiotic research less economically viable compared to other therapeutic agents?

    <p>Fear of newer antibiotics facing resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What possible environmental consequence is highlighted in the text due to antibiotics discharged into water systems?

    <p>Creation of reservoirs for resistance genes and new pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason antibiotics are an attractive investment for pharmaceutical companies?

    <p>Cost-effective translation from academic research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do surveillance cultures help in hospitals?

    <p>Detect antibiotic-resistant strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant drawback of using surveillance cultures for detecting resistant strains in hospitals?

    <p>Time-consuming process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method has an Australian research group developed to detect bacteria in hospitals?

    <p>Machine that 'sniffs' the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is a probiotic being tested against VRE to eradicate resistant organisms?

    <p>By preventing bacterial colonization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What have several research groups developed tests for to combat antibiotic-resistant strains?

    <p>Identifying colonization of patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does genetic mutation play in the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>Increases chances of resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the development of new antibiotics crucial according to the text?

    <p>To lessen the impact of resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary drawback to the existing culture tests for detecting MRSA, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>Time taken</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What commonly faced challenge contributes to the diminishing importance of new antibiotics in the pharmaceutical pipeline?

    <p>Perceived poor financial returns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor contributing to the overprescription of newer generation broad-spectrum antibiotics?

    <p>Patient expectations and the belief that more expensive and newer generation drugs are better than older ones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated percentage of antibiotics prescribed that are unnecessary or inappropriate?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern related to antibiotic use in animal agriculture?

    <p>The use of antibiotics in animals for food has become a concern in recent years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of poor infection prevention and control practices in hospitals?

    <p>The number of people dying each year due to healthcare-associated infections is greater than the number of people dying from AIDS, breast cancer, or cystic fibrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of patients receiving antibiotics in the United States who receive a broad-spectrum antibiotic?

    <p>58%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the overuse of antibiotics in hospitals?

    <p>The fear of legal repercussions and administrative inconvenience in hospitals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance in hospitals?

    <p>The increased antibiotic resistance and potential harm to patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor contributing to the high rates of antibiotic resistance in hospitals?

    <p>The overuse and misuse of antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance in agriculture?

    <p>The development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of poor infection prevention and control practices in the community?

    <p>The development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the community</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of using sub-therapeutic dosages of antibiotics in animals?

    <p>Environmental effects and release of antibiotics into soil and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason why antibiotic resistance is a significant issue in animal husbandry?

    <p>Increased infection morbidity and mortality in humans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can resistant bacteria be spread between humans?

    <p>Through touching an infected person's wound and then touching an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern regarding antibiotic resistance in medicine?

    <p>Development of resistant bacterial strains that can survive treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated impact of antibiotic resistance on society?

    <p>Increased infectious disease burdens in developing countries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>Horizontal gene transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of inadequate infection control measures in hospitals?

    <p>Increased spread of infections in hospitals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes?

    <p>Animal husbandry and agriculture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of prolonged delay in developing new replacement treatments and vaccines?

    <p>Increased costs of healthcare due to antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of antibiotic resistance in humans?

    <p>Animal husbandry and agriculture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of XDR-TB that makes it a more severe form of TB?

    <p>Resistance to all first-line TB drugs and some second-line drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on the treatment of infections?

    <p>Prolonged illness and hospitalization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated cost of treating XDR-TB patients in developing countries?

    <p>Up to $200,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the increased use of broad-spectrum antibiotics?

    <p>Pressure from patients to use antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria?

    <p>Decreased treatment options</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated annual spending on infections due to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>$6.3 billion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the rise in antibiotic use due to bacterial infections?

    <p>Increased antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of outpatient prescriptions that are unnecessary due to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>40%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on the care of the elderly and infirm?

    <p>More frequent use of costly broad-spectrum antibiotics and hospital admission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of treatment failures due to antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Prolonged illness and hospitalization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the severe consequences of antibiotic resistance mentioned in the text?

    <p>Death caused by resistant infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does antibiotic resistance impact worker productivity?

    <p>Reduces worker productivity due to increased illnesses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of antibiotic resistance on the health and economy?

    <p>Negation of healthcare gains and increased poverty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a prediction regarding future antibiotic use and clinical outcomes?

    <p>Clinical failure of antibiotics will occur more frequently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of antibiotic resistance on the treatment of minor infections?

    <p>They can be life-threatening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are pharmaceutical companies less inclined to invest in new antibiotics?

    <p>They are less profitable and have a limited shelf life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why can some people in less developed countries face challenges in accessing treatments?

    <p>The expensive and toxic treatments are beyond their reach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is expected to happen if antibiotic resistance continues unchecked?

    <p>Reemergence of infectious diseases that were once nearly eradicated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of resistant infections on productivity in developing countries?

    <p>It reduces productivity and perpetuates poverty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the outcomes of outbreaks caused by resistant strains in major cities?

    <p>Increased infection rates among socially disadvantaged groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the widespread loss of effective antibiotics?

    <p>It negates the gains made in healthcare and economic development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of resistant infections on the healthcare system?

    <p>It increases healthcare costs and reduces patient satisfaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why can overuse and misuse of antibiotics lead to resistant strains?

    <p>It accelerates the natural evolutionary process of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What evolutionary response do bacteria have to antibiotics in order to survive?

    <p>They develop ways to resist the drug's effects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotics losing their ability to control bacterial growth?

    <p>Resistance strains of bacteria multiply in the presence of therapeutic levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bacteria resist antibiotics in terms of drug inactivation?

    <p>By chemically modifying antibiotics to neutralize their effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major implication for modern medicine due to the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>Lower effectiveness of medical procedures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of individuals is more susceptible to incurable infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains?

    <p>Elderly, cancer patients, and transplant patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does bacterial resistance to antibiotics impact medical complications?

    <p>It increases medical complications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern regarding the cost of treating infections caused by resistant bacteria?

    <p>The cost is often 10-15 times higher than treating non-resistant infections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the cost of treating resistant infections different from non-resistant infections?

    <p>It can be much higher, often 10-15 times more.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the natural response of bacteria exposed to antibiotics to create a hostile environment?

    <p>To adapt and find ways to resist the drug's effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the direct selection pressure on bacteria in man-made situations influence antibiotic resistance?

    <p>It maintains antibiotic resistance by allowing bacteria with resistance genes to survive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one way antibiotic resistance is transmitted through the environment?

    <p>Through the spread of already resistant organisms like MRSA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the increased morbidity and mortality rates associated with antibiotic resistance?

    <p>Difficulty in controlling infectious diseases and re-emergence of under-controlled diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do resistant strains impact the time it takes to control diseases?

    <p>They prolong illness periods and increase the time taken to control diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes long-term diseases harder to control, according to the text?

    <p>The spread of untreatable resistant strains.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are tens of millions of lives at risk in developing countries due to antibiotic-resistant strains?

    <p>Because antibiotics in developing countries are often too expensive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does antibiotic resistance have on hospital infections in the USA according to the text?

    <p>Resistant bacteria contribute to about 60% of hospital infections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the cure rate for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in some parts of the world?

    <p>Below 50%.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of the rise in antibiotic resistance on global health security?

    <p>Potential reversal of medical advances and increased health costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the current challenge in treating infectious diseases?

    <p>Three new antibiotic classes have been discovered in the last 30 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the economic impact of antibiotic resistance on international trade?

    <p>It reduces foreign direct investment and tourism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated annual cost of successful control of infectious diseases in developing countries?

    <p>$33 billion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of stewardship programs in combating antibiotic resistance?

    <p>To ensure the right drug is prescribed at the right dose and duration for specific diagnoses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of antibiotic resistance on medical achievements?

    <p>It puts medical achievements like organ transplantation and cancer therapy at risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of not addressing antibiotic resistance urgently?

    <p>Patients may die from simple and curable infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of implementing antibiotic stewardship programmes in various healthcare settings?

    <p>To reduce the spread of resistant strains and ensure appropriate treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of prior approval for certain antibiotics in antibiotic stewardship programmes?

    <p>It requires specialist consultation to prevent overuse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the threat of antibiotic resistance to global health?

    <p>It poses a significant threat to global health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of antibiotic resistance on health inequity?

    <p>It increases health inequity, particularly for the economically disadvantaged</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of switching patients from intravenous to oral drugs once they are clinically improving?

    <p>It reduces the spread of resistant strains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the challenge in developing new antibiotics?

    <p>The cost and testing required are extensive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of antibiotic resistance on the healthcare system?

    <p>It leads to longer illness duration and higher morbidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of biotechnology in the development of new antibiotics?

    <p>It enables the design of new antimicrobial compounds and improves the effectiveness of existing ones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of supply chain breakdowns and global/regional outsourcing of drug manufacturing?

    <p>It leads to drug shortages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of mass immunization in reducing antibiotic use?

    <p>It leads to a decline in antibiotic use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the World Health Organisation and the Infectious Diseases Society of America in preventing antibiotic resistance?

    <p>To reduce the spread of resistant strains and prevent antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of antibiotic use in providing more frequent and longer exposure to selective pressure of antibiotics?

    <p>It allows resistant organisms to thrive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of strengthening infection prevention and control measures?

    <p>To prevent and control infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the potential implications of high treatment costs due to resistant infections mentioned in the text?

    <p>Compromising the standard of care for patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it crucial to develop new antimicrobial agents, as stated in the text?

    <p>To quantify the burden of diseases associated with resistant infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can resistant pathogens be transmitted, according to the text?

    <p>Through healthcare workers, equipment, and the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the public health issues directly impacted by antibiotic resistance, according to the text?

    <p>Assessment and treatment of various infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is collecting high-quality data associated with quantifying the burden of diseases essential, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>To guide policy decisions about resource allocation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the potential consequences of antibiotic resistance on the economic burden of treatment, according to the text?

    <p>Limited potential cost-effectiveness of antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

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