Materials of Decoration: Electroplating and Porcelain Enamel

The Origins and Development of Glass

• The earliest man-made glass objects date back to around 3500 BC, found in Egypt and Eastern Mesopotamia.
• In the third millennium, glass production in central Mesopotamia was mainly used for glazes on pots and vases.
• The discovery of glass may have been coincidental, with calciferous sand combining with soda to form a colored glaze on ceramics.
• Phoenician merchants and sailors spread the art of glassmaking along the coasts of the Mediterranean.

Egyptian Glass

• Glass production in Egypt started around 1375 BC, with the discovery of a glass furnace in Tell-et-Amana.
• The Ptolemaic Dynasty saw the development of a new technique called Mosaic glass.
• Mosaic glass involved lightly fusing varicolored glass canes together, extending them to the required length and thickness, and then slicing them laterally.
• The slices were then laid side by side in a mold and fused to form a colored pattern.

Mesopotamian Glass

• The oldest records of glass production date back to around 1700 BC in Mesopotamia.
• Assyrian glass employed similar processes to Egyptian glass.
• The technique of glassblowing was discovered around 200 BC, enabling the production of thin-walled, fine glasses in various shapes.

Murano Glass

• Named after a suburb in Venice, Murano glass is exceptionally light and delicate.
• It was modeled into extraordinary shapes in a variety of colors and was never cut.

German Glass

• The development of new glass formulas in Germany and the Netherlands weakened Italy's supremacy in the 16th-17th century.
• German glass was well-suited to wheel-engraved decoration.

French Glass

• The first production of French glass occurred in 1665, with the use of large plate mirrors in the "Gallerie des Glaces" at Versailles Palace.
• France formally entered the glass market in the 19th century, with Emile Galle's Art Nouveau style.

Baccarat Glass

• Developed in Baccarat, France, with a lead composition.
• Clear, bubble-free, and highly prized for its clarity.
• Cut glass was a Baccarat specialty.

Lalique Glass

• Developed by René Lalique in the early 20th century.
• Characterized by luminous, transparent glass ornamented by pressing and alternating polished and dull surfaces.
• Produced decorative glass and figurines in the Art Nouveau style.

English Glass

• In 1675, George Ravenscroft made a discovery that revolutionized glassmaking.
• He added lead oxide to the raw materials, producing a glass that was heavier, stronger, and more brilliant.

Bristol Glass

• Known for its white, opaque milky glass, known as Milk Glass.
• Resembles porcelain or Battersea enamel in tint.

Irish Glass

• Glassworks flourished in Ireland during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Irish glass is known for its toughness and beauty.

American Glass

• The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of Art Nouveau glass decorations in the United States.
• Stiegel glass was developed by Henri William Stiegel, who established an iron foundry in Pennsylvania.
• Wistarburg Ware was developed by Caspar Wistar in New Jersey, characterized by blown glass with ornamental forms.

Chinese Glass

• Peking Glass was made in Peking during the reign of Emperor K'ang Hsi.
• Patiently carved in the form of small, traditionally shaped vases and snuff bottles.
• Clear, solid-colored, and overlay glass in two or more colors.

Glossary of Glass Terms

• Acid etching: a process of etching the surface of glass with hydrofluoric acid to create a design.
• Ancient glass: generally refers to glass made before the Venetian era.
• Anneal: to cool glass slowly from a molten state to remove any strain.
• Antique glass: a trade term for glass more than 25 years old.
• Blown glass: shaping glass by blowing air through a hollow rod into the center of a molten glass gather.

Metals

• Definition: a class of elementary substances that are crystalline when solid, and many of which are characterized by opacity, ductility, conductivity, and a unique luster when freshly fractured.

Categories of Metals

• Ferrous metals: consist mostly of iron, such as steel.
• Nonferrous metals: contain little or no iron, generally have good corrosion resistance, and are nonmagnetic.

Production Techniques of Metals

• Casting: forming a material into a particular shape by pouring it in a fluid state into a mold.
• Extrusion: producing shapes by forcing semi-molten material through a die.
• Forging: forming metal by hammering, pressing, or rolling.

Metal Finishes

• Mechanical finishes: accomplished by buffing, grinding, polishing, or otherwise texturing the metal surface.
• Chemical finishes: involve the reaction of various solutions on the metal surface.
• Electrolytic finishes: based on the specific ability of aluminum to develop a protective coating of oxide on its surface.

Metals Used in the Decorative Arts

• Iron: a metal that is considered to be the most abundant, can rust when exposed to damp air, but does not change when in protected places.
• Steel: a metal that is halfway between cast and wrought iron, known for its hardness, high polish, and elasticity.
• Aluminum: a metal that is essentially modern, known for its unique combination of properties, including lightness, strength, and corrosion resistance.
• Copper: a metal that is readily available, soft, and easily fabricated, known for its orange- or reddish-brown color.
• Brass: an alloy of copper and zinc, known for its bright yellowish appearance and high polish.
• Bronze: an alloy of copper and tin, known for its rich golden-brown color and use in statues.

Stainless Steel

• A type of steel that is inherently corrosion resistant due to the addition of chromium.
• Popular for use in commercial interiors and kitchen utensils.

Carbon Steel

• A type of steel that relies on the carbon content for structure.
• Most of the steel produced in the world is carbon steel.

Electrical Steel

• A type of steel that includes silicon, allowing it to minimize energy loss during electrical applications.### American Silversmiths

• Cornelius Kierstead worked in New York

• John Coney and Paul Revere are the best known of the Boston silversmiths

Steel Terms

• Aquatint: a method of engraving on copper by using a resinous solution of nitric acid
• Cadmium Plating: a protective plating for steel, often used for wood screws
• Dinandrie: a 15th-century metal alloy, the ancestor of pewter, combining copper, tin, and lead
• Damascene Work: a type of metal inlay, where the design is incised by acid applications on a metal base, and filled with wires or different metals
• Ferroalloy: a metal product containing iron and other metals, used as a raw material feed in steelmaking
• Firebacks: metal linings, often ornamented, placed in a fireplace to reflect heat and protect the masonry
• Galvanizing: the process of coating steel with a layer of zinc to provide corrosion resistance
• Ingot: steel cast in a metal mold, ready for rolling or forging
• Ironwork: decorative, hand-forged iron or cast iron grilles, screens, gates, and grates
• Mounts: ornamental or utilitarian metal work, such as handles, drawer pulls, and escutcheons
• Pickling: treating the surface of iron or steel with acid to remove scale, rust, and dirt
• Repousse: relief work on metal materials, where the design is pushed out by hammering the material on the reverse side
• Scale: oxide of iron that forms on the surface of steel after heating
• Sheet: wide, flat-rolled steel, generally less than 3 mm thick

Materials of Decoration

Roman Glass (1st century B.C.)

• Developed in all phases of glass making
• Characterized by filigree, mosaic, and engraved decors
• Used translucent sheets of alabaster or mica as window material
• Cameo Glass: a process of grinding away the upper of two superimposing layers of glass to leave a design standing on a ground of contrasting color
• Phoenician Glass: sometimes referred to as Roman Glass, refers to the products of the entire Mediterranean transported by Phoenician merchants
• Doppelwand Glass: enclosed etched gold or silver designs between two clear panels
• Snake-Threaded Glass: flasks and goblets decorated with ribbons of colored glass trailed on in fantastic patterns and notched with a transverse ribbed effect

Venetian Glass (13th-14th Centuries)

• Developed soda lime glass, termed Cristallo, which is thin and clear
• Aventurine Glass: glass that includes glittering gold particles

Other Materials

• Slag: a non-metallic material forming a molten layer on top of the molten steel in a steel furnace, or loosely applied to any waste material drawn off in molten form
• Sterling: a term used in connection with silverware, indicating that the silver is 92 1/2 percent pure
• Tempering: the process of softening steel or iron by reheating it at a lower temperature than its previous hardening
• Tole: useful or decorative objects made of tin and ornamented with painted or enameled patterns
• Verdigris: a greenish patina found on aged brass, bronze, or copper