Master the Art of Decision-Making

<p>Decision research focuses on coherence of beliefs and preferences, while judgement research focuses on correspondence between subjective and environmental states.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both the person and the environment in which that person operates</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Expected utility</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The probability of the outcome occurring</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because they produce good outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cognitive dissonance about bad decisions</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The lens-model</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They maximize expected utility</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The utility of money declines with increasing gains</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It led to the modification of expected utility theory to make it a better descriptive theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The 'real world' where the event exists</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Multiple-cue probability learning (MCPL)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To feed the machine with data</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A collection of specialized cognitive heuristics suited to different problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recognition principle and stopping rule</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mixed support with evidence of individual differences</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Alternative bases strategy (ABS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Conflicting attributes</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Compensatory strategies consider all information</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Incorporating new predictive cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants could discover valid cues among explicit and inferred cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Immediate and certain information costs outweighed delayed and uncertain payoff</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Accuracy of decision vs effort involved in making it</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Monitoring and control have a reciprocal relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>If experiences of uncertainty are maintained, no improvements in control behaviors will be observed</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Extended practice alone does not necessarily lead to improved performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Learning about the outcome feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>When the environment is very simple (2/3 cues max.)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because outcome feedback can lead to incorrect learning when the functions are negative or non-linear</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants do not have the cognitive schemata needed for efficient performance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The outcome feedback does not provide the necessary information to improve performance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Feedback provides trial-by-trial information, while feedforward provides task information transmitted through instructions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cognitive feedback after each prediction improves performance more than outcome feedback alone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>They require a series of interdependent decisions 2) The state of the task changes over time, autonomously and as a consequence of the decision maker’s actions 3) Decisions must be made in real time</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants may not perform optimally, but their behavior is at least reasonable in the sense that it gets the job done</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Task monitoring (environment) and self-monitoring (tracking one’s goals)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Psychological uncertainty mediates both task- and self-monitoring, which in turn affect control behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The principle of coherence</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Correspondence theories</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They provide consistency constraints on judgments or beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Overweighting the evidence when items of evidence are causally related</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They provide a normative framework for probabilistic reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>When there is a network of related hypotheses and evidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The range of probabilities (relative frequencies) depending on the chosen reference class</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Updating one's probability judgments in the light of new evidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The probability of the evidence on the supposition that the target hypothesis is true and false</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The posterior belief in a hypothesis based on new evidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>When people answer an easier question instead of the original question</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The tendency to neglect the base-rate information when making probability judgments</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The tendency to believe that a conjunction is more probable than its conjuncts</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Assessment of the ease of recall or generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Implicit subadditivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Comparison of judgments with actual frequencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To evaluate the accuracy of judgments</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The strength of evidence</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Probability judgments are description-dependent</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ranking subordinate categories as more probable than superordinate categories</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They respond with judgments of evidential support instead of condition probability</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The inside view focuses on individual cases, while the outside view focuses on distributional features</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Empirical data showing that the frequency format is neither necessary nor sufficient for facilitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Frequency processing can serve as a form of natural assessment and frequency formats might simplify the computations necessary to solve a probability problem</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By making multiple uncertain categorizations in the service of a prediction</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The reduction of judgmental biases when probability problems are presented in a frequency format</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Frequencies that have not had base-rate information filtered out</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The preference for using representative or associative thinking in intuitive probability judgments</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Assigning utilities to the different outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Maximizing expected utility</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Invariance principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The slight chance of winning nothing in B does not compensate for the extra chance of winning a large amount</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>People reason differently when they know the exact probabilities than when they do not</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>In terms of gains or losses relative to a neutral reference point</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a concave function of money</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They perceive outcomes as gains or losses relative to a neutral reference point</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They tend to be eliminated or reduced</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Preferences are not always stable</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Individual's goals and expectations</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Endowment effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Status quo bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Medium and large probabilities Risk-aversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Certainty effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prospect theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are influenced by recently experienced events</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Compatibility hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Some attributes are harder to evaluate than others</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Self-serving bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Counterfactual thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Setting a deadline</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Controlling intertemporal decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>β systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A craving for instantaneous pleasure from a drug co-exists with a strong desire to give up the drug in the future.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The tendency to focus only on the most salient features of an object.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Consumption decreases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They believe their current preferences are stable and intrinsic</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants tend to recall factors that they did not put emphasis on</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A rule that states people remember the peak and end of an experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Participants tend to think they identified the face earlier than they did</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>People prefer sequences that include more total pleasure</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hyperbolic model</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Psychophysics of time perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Interest rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Three weeks is perceived as being less far in the future than one week</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Discount rates tend to be the same regardless of the value or timing of the outcome</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The exchangeability of money for other goods or services</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The ability to predict in advance how much pleasure or pain an experience will give us</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>People fail to appreciate that the focal topic of an event will be much less prominent in their future lives than they imagine</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By reminding people that the focal outcome will be only one of the numerous events competing for their attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Emotions and cognitive evaluations sometimes diverge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The relationship between emotion and over-weighting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Presentation in frequencies generates a more vivid effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The use of a frequency format is not the crucial factor underlying the imaginability of exemplars.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Affective reactions to stimuli do not require cognitive appraisal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Individuals with PFC damage have lost the ability to make any decisions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Affect can influence judgments about risks and benefits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Information about one attribute can have a carryover effect on another attribute.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Group decision-making is generally more accurate than individual decision-making.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Eureka-type problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The best individual participants</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Delphi</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Dictator</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Consensus group judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It allows for statistical analysis of judgmental accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Training, Teaming, Tracking</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Unshared cue</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Importance of identifying the best individual member</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Groups were able to identify the best member at levels far exceeding chance</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They have superior communication skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cohesiveness, insularity, directed leadership, lack of procedures for search and appraisal of information, low confidence in finding an alternative solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The type of decision-making that occurs in groups that are highly cohesive, insular, and have directed leadership</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Assess the reliability of your prediction</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It improves judgmental accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reduction of the anchoring effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because they emphasize improving outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Opt-in or opt-out</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>When one needs to act due to non-conductive choice architecture, consent rates are much lower</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Five-whys technique</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To aggregate the value-laden attributes of decisions</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Model component</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They focus on alternatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Eyewitness memory is common sense to jurors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is limited in scope and highly inaccurate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They underestimate the importance of system variables and overestimate the importance of estimator variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Jurors</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>System variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Focusing on the importance of system variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The focus of the article is on a second psychologically based problem: that innocent defendants had confessed before their trial.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The three objectives of the article are: 1) Update on the psychology of confession evidence 2) Isolate and amplify a surprising signal that innocent may put innocent people at risk during a criminal investigation 3) Propose that policies for the reform of interrogation practices and the mandatory videotaping of all interviews and interrogations offer the most effective means of protection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The error is that there are different reasons why 'deception' behavior is shown and research has failed to support the claim that groups of individuals can attain high-average levels of performance in judgments of truth and deception.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>Innocent people are often targeted for interrogation based on erroneous judgments. 2) Innocents waive their rights to silence and counsel. 3) Innocents can be induced to confess to crimes they did not commit. 4) It is difficult to recognize a false confession.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>Set guidelines for the amount of time a suspect can be detained and questioned. 2) Avoid using fake evidence. 3) Further study and avoid the use of minimization tactics. 4) Video-tape interrogations.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study suggests that there is insufficient protection for innocence within the criminal justice system and that innocence may put innocents at risk.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Some suggest that police can sometimes make accurate judgments, while others suggest that they are not necessarily more accurate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>Some participants received training in the Reid technique while others did not. 2) Judgments were made for a set of videotapes depicting interviews and denials by guilty or innocent individuals.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Observers were generally unable to differentiate between suspects better than chance. Participants who received training were less accurate than naïve controls, although they were more confident and cited more reasons for their judgments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To seek future improvements in training to make police better interviewers and lie detectors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The three mechanisms through which economic evaluation can assist psychiatry in mental health care are: 1) Describing the cost of the burden of psychiatric illness, 2) Predicting the level of resources needed in psychiatry, and 3) Providing information about the best use of those resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The different types of costs considered in cost studies related to mental illness are: direct costs, indirect costs, and intangible costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Healthcare costs in mental health care describe the resources consumed by health care interventions, which can be aimed at either prevention or treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>Healthcare resources, 2) Patient and family resources, 3) Other sector resources</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>Direct value to the patient of his or her improved health state, 2) Value of being reassured that he or she is receiving appropriate care</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Utilities provide preferences for a health state and refer to establishing weighted index of preferences on a scale from 0 to 1</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>QALY's measure utilities that exist over time, while DALY combines expected length of life lost due to premature mortality with the severity-adjusted future stream of a life lived with a disability</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The goal of economic evaluation in healthcare service provision is to compare the worth of a program when compared with other programs through the comparison of costs with benefits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increasing demand for psychiatric services will ensure that psychiatrists are held accountable for their programs and they will be expected to undertake comprehensive evaluations, including economic evaluation, to compare their programs with other health-care interventions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Most economic evaluations of psychiatric services in the past were reported to be methodologically poor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The main reasons for poor quality economic evaluations of psychiatric services include measurement difficulties, poor understanding of economic evaluation, a failure to work closely with health economists, and a failure to adhere to the basic principles of economic evaluation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The essential elements of SDM are: 1) Define or explain the problem, 2) Present options, 3) Discuss the pros and cons, 4) Assess patient's values or preferences, 5) Discuss patient ability or self-efficacy, 6) Provide doctor knowledge or recommendations, 7) Check or clarify understanding, 8) Make or explicitly defer decisions, 9) Arrange follow-up.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The four-step model of SDM proposed by the authors includes: 1) The professional informs the patient that a decision is to be made and that the patient’s opinion is important, 2) The professional explains the options and the pros/cons of each relevant option, 3) The professional and patient discuss the patient’s preferences; the professional supports the patient in deliberation, 4) The professional and patient discuss the patient’s decisional role preference, make or defer the decision, and discuss possible follow-up.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Some suggestions to improve the implementation of SDM include: 1) Implement the Ask 3 questions approach, 2) Use patient decision aids tools, 3) Include other professionals than physicians (e.g. nurses), 4) Incorporate SDM in medical and nursing curricula, 5) Raise knowledge and awareness about SDM.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Clinicians think it takes a lot of time to implement SDM, but data suggests otherwise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Shared decision making (SDM) is a two-way exchange of information and treatment preferences between patients and physicians. It distinguishes from other models by acknowledging that patients' treatment preferences vary widely, are often different from physicians' preferences, and cannot be adequately predicted by patient characteristics. In SDM, patients and physicians agree on the final treatment decision, which may not be the physician's preferred option.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The two lines of thinking that support the plea for SDM are ethics and practice variation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The goal of shared decision making (SDM) is for patients and physicians to agree on the final treatment decision, which may not be the physician's preferred option.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ethics and practice variation</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Two-way exchange of information and treatment preferences</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Agreement between patients and physicians</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The essential elements of SDM identified by Makoul and Claymen are: 1) Define or explain the problem, 2) Present options, 3) Discuss pros and cons, 4) Assess patients values or preferences, 5) Discuss patient ability or self-efficacy, 6) Provide doctor knowledge or recommendations, 7) Check or clarify understanding, 8) Make or explicitly defer decisions, 9) Arrange follow-up.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The steps in the four-step model of SDM proposed by the authors are: 1) The professional informs the patient that a decision is to be made and that the patient’s opinion is important, 2) The professional explains the options and the pros/cons of each relevant option, 3) The professional and patient discuss the patient’s preferences; the professional supports the patient in deliberation, 4) The professional and patient discuss the patient’s decisional role preference, make or defer the decision and discuss possible follow-up.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The four SDM steps are seen to a limited extent only in daily clinical practice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Some suggestions to improve the implementation of SDM include: 1) Implementing the Ask 3 questions approach to encourage patients to ask questions, 2) Using patient decision aids tools to support patients in the SDM process, 3) Involving other professionals, such as nurses, in discussing options, 4) Incorporating SDM in medical and nursing curricula, 5) Raising knowledge and awareness about SDM among professionals and patients.</p> Signup and view all the answers