Sociology

Marxist Model

• A socio-economic and political worldview based on materialist interpretation of history.
• Emphasizes dialectical social transformation and analysis of class relations and conflict.
• Major criticism targets the overemphasis on economic class for explaining historical trends.

Sanction

• Defined as a reward for conformity or a punishment for nonconformity.
• Reinforces behaviors that are socially approved.

Institution

• Structured mechanisms governing behavior within a community.
• Facilitates social order and cooperation among individuals.

Kinship

• Network of social relationships linked by common ancestry, marriage, or adoption.

Subculture

• A group with distinct values, norms, and lifestyles within a broader society.

Community

• A collective of individuals sharing a common identity, interacting on a sustained basis.

Social Control

• Pepinsky: Chinese communists use group manipulation of guilt and shame as an effective form of social control.

Bureaucracy

• A formal organization featuring a clear authority hierarchy and written procedural rules.
• Staffed by salaried officials focused on efficient goal attainment.

Religion

• Primary function is to establish orderly relationships between individuals and their surroundings.

Primary vs. Secondary Groups

• Primary groups are small, with close, enduring relationships.
• Secondary groups involve less personal interaction, characterized by temporary roles.

Fascist System

• A radical authoritarian nationalism aiming to unify through totalitarian state.
• Views political violence, war, and imperialism as valid methods for national rejuvenation.

Caste System vs Class System

• Caste system involves hereditary status, lifestyle, and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity.
• Class system categorizes people into upper, middle, and lower classes based on socio-economic factors.

Stereotypes

• Rigid, inflexible perceptions of group characteristics, leading to interactions based on preconceived notions.

Discovery

• Refers to the initial awareness of previously unobserved elements of nature.

Paranormal Concepts

• Clairvoyance: Gaining information through means beyond known senses.
• Psychokinesis: Moving objects solely through mental effort.
• Precognition: Foreknowledge of future events.
• Telepathy: Communication of thoughts without known senses.

Psychological Concepts

• Fixation and Identification: Freud's concepts regarding attachment and assimilation of attributes from others.
• Repression: Excluding desires from consciousness to manage impulses.
• Regression: Reversion to earlier development stages when facing unacceptable impulses.

Perception

• Illusion: Distortion of senses; reveals how the brain processes stimuli.
• Hallucination: Perception without external stimuli.
• Auditory and Eidetic Imagery: Mental organization of sounds and mental pictures, respectively.

Mood Disorders

• Affective disorders involve mood elevation or depression.
• Panic reactions lead to overwhelming fear or anxiety causing personality disorganization.

Gestalt Principles of Perception

• Proximity, Continuation, Closure, Common Fate, and Similarity influence how we perceive grouped objects.

Parenting and Impulse

• A loving and consistent parent fosters competence and self-reliance in children.
• Human impulses often conflict with societal moral standards, notably related to sex and aggression.

Attention and Learning

• Selective attention enhances focus on particular stimuli while filtering others.
• Sensory adaptation and Just Noticeable Difference pertain to perception and responsiveness over time.

Learning Theories

• Roger’s Self Theory advocates for self-actualization and situational perception in behavior.
• Negative transfer refers to interference with learning due to prior experiences.

Conditioning and Phobias

• Operant conditioning involves reinforcing specific responses.
• Classical conditioning pairs stimuli to evoke responses.
• Phobias are irrational fears or aversions.

Psychological Mechanisms

• Desensitization reduces sensitivity to stimuli, while Modeling allows learning through observation.
• Diffusion of responsibility affects individual accountability in group settings.

Research Challenges

• Experimental research faces issues like Demand characteristics, Hawthorne effect, and Halo effect.
• Demand characteristics lead participants to alter behavior based on perceived purpose of study.

Therapy Approaches

• Gestalt therapy focuses on insight and resolving past conflicts, often through role play.
• Reality therapy emphasizes realism and personal responsibility.
• Psychoanalysis seeks to uncover unconscious conflicts and fears.

Other Therapy Types

• Behavior therapy modifies reactions to stimuli through training.
• Client-centered therapy gives the client control over session focus.
• Rational emotive therapy addresses emotional issues to promote a fulfilling life.

Psychological Defense Mechanisms

• Projection involves attributing unacceptable traits to others.
• Suppression consciously excludes painful thoughts or memories.

Motivation and Needs

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs categorizes human motivation from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.