Martin Luther and the 95 Theses & Silver Role

Martin Luther and the 95 Theses (1517)

• Corruption in the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences, fueled criticism.
• The printing press rapidly spread reformist ideas.
• Humanism's emphasis on individual thought and questioning of authority contributed.
• The 95 Theses sparked the Protestant Reformation, leading to new denominations (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism).
• Religious wars, like the Thirty Years' War, resulted.
• Church authority decreased, and secular rulers gained power.
• The Catholic Church responded with reforms through the Council of Trent (Counter-Reformation).

Role of Silver (1450s - 1750s)

• Silver became the first truly global commodity, driving international trade.
• Major sources were Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico).
• China's demand for silver, used for taxes, led to a "silver drain" into Asia.
• This created a global trade imbalance.
• Manila became a critical hub connecting American silver mines to Chinese markets via Spanish galleons.
• Spain initially prospered, but inflation ("Price Revolution") weakened its economy.
• China's economy boomed, but social inequality worsened due to increased taxes on peasants.

Triangular Trade Route (1500s - 1800s)

• The route connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
• Europe exported manufactured goods (e.g., guns, textiles).
• Africa provided slaves.
• The Americas supplied raw materials (e.g., sugar, tobacco, cotton).
• The trade drastically expanded the Atlantic slave trade, harming African societies.
• It significantly boosted European economies and industrialization.
• Social and racial hierarchies in the Americas were altered.

Afro-Eurasian Trade Goods/Routes

• Trade routes included the Indian Ocean, Silk Roads, and Trans-Saharan routes.
• Luxury goods (e.g., silk, porcelain from China, gold, ivory from Africa) were exchanged.
• Agricultural products (e.g., sugar, rice, cotton) were also traded.

Industrial Revolution (Late 1700s - 1800s)

• Europe's advantages stemmed from natural resources (coal, iron), Enlightenment ideas, and wealth from colonies.
• Britain's early access to resources and a developed banking system were significant factors.
• Key innovations included the steam engine (James Watt), mechanized textile production (spinning jenny, power loom), and railroads.
• The revolution fostered a growing middle class (industrial capitalists) and an expanding urban working class.
• Working-class women and children faced harsh exploitation in factories.
• Middle-class women were constrained to domestic roles (cult of domesticity).

Karl Marx/Communism

• Karl Marx criticized capitalism for its exploitation of the working class.
• He advocated for a classless, stateless society through revolution.
• His key text was The Communist Manifesto (1848).

Adam Smith/Capitalism

• Adam Smith promoted free markets and limited government intervention (laissez-faire).
• His key text was The Wealth of Nations (1776).

French Revolution (1789-1799)

• The revolution was driven by economic crisis (government debt, unequal taxation), Enlightenment ideas challenging absolutism, and food shortages.
• The storming of the Bastille symbolized the revolt.
• The Reign of Terror, led by Robespierre, involved thousands of executions.
• The revolution marked the end of the French monarchy and the rise of republican ideals.
• Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power and stabilized France but led to further expansion.

Enlightenment (1600s - 1700s)

• Enlightenment thinkers emphasized natural rights, popular sovereignty, and separation of powers.
• Key thinkers include:
• John Locke: Natural rights (life, liberty, property), right to revolt.
• Thomas Hobbes: Strong, absolute government for order.
• Baron de Montesquieu: Separation of powers.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Popular sovereignty and the "general will."
• Voltaire: Freedom of speech and religious tolerance, criticism of absolute monarchs.
• Adam Smith: Free market economics.
• Cesare Beccaria: Fair criminal justice, opposing torture and the death penalty.
• The Enlightenment challenged the Divine Right Theory, replacing it with democratic ideals.
• Early feminists emerged (Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges), advocating for women's education and rights.

Chattel Slavery/Coerced Labor (1500s - 1900s)

• Chattel slavery was permanent and inheritable.
• Coerced labor included indentured servitude, encomienda systems, and debt peonage.

Globalization (1400s - Present)

• Globalization involved the Columbian Exchange (transfer of goods, diseases, and ideas).
• European imperialism integrated colonies into global trade networks.
• Spread of technologies like the printing press.

Absolutism vs. Divine Right Theory (1500s - 1700s)

• Absolutism involved centralized royal authority (e.g., Louis XIV).
• The Divine Right Theory justified monarchs as divinely appointed rulers.

Haitian Independence (1791 - 1804)

• Harsh plantation systems reliant on enslaved labor, inspiration from the French Revolution, Toussaint L'Ouverture's leadership prompted the revolution.
• Haiti became the first successful slave-led revolution, gaining independence in 1804.
• Economic sanctions from Western powers limited its economic recovery.

Simon Bolivar (1800s)

• Bolivar led independence movements in South America (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador).
• Inspired by Enlightenment ideas and revolutionary movements in France and the US.
• He advocated for Pan-American unity but faced regional and geographical challenges.