Mammals and Birds: Behavior Quiz

Reproductive Behaviour, Mating Systems and Parental Behaviour

• This section covers mating systems and related behaviours.
• Firstly, modes of reproduction are discussed.
• Then, reproductive effort, success and investment are explained.
• Parental care and specific investment types (maternal, paternal, biparental, alloparental) are detailed.
• Secondly, mating systems (e.g., monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, polygyny, polygynandry, promiscuity) are outlined.
• Examples from mammals (canids, callitrichids, cricetids) and birds (anseriformes, anatids) are included.
• Details regarding mating systems will be provided later.

Reproduction

• Reproductive modes are discussed.
• Reproductive strategies/systems are covered (including courtship and mating).
• Parental behaviour and alloparental behaviours are examined as parts of reproductive strategies.

Modes of Reproduction I

• Reproduction is classified by gamete production (egg, sperm, or both).
• Methods of fertilisation (internal or external) and methods of producing young (viviparity, ovoviviparity, oviparity) are presented.

Modes of Reproduction II

• Gonochoristic (separate sexes) is the most common mode.
• Hermaphroditic (both sexes in one individual) is an example.
• Parthenogenesis (asexual reproduction) is also described, with examples like top minnow.

Parthenogenesis!?

• Parthenogenesis involves all individuals having only ovaries and producing only eggs ("virgin birth").
• In some cases, sperm isn't necessary for complete development (e.g. whiptail lizard).
• In other species, sperm is needed but the sperm's genome isn't incorporated.

Known Cases

• Recent examples of parthenogenesis in sharks, blind snakes, and other species are provided.

Parental Care and Behaviour

• Definition 1: Behaviors contributing directly to offspring survival after fertilisation.
• Definition 2: Activities directed at protecting and preserving offspring.
• Maternal care: behaviors performed by the mother (or surrogate female).
• Paternal care: behaviors performed by the father (or surrogate male).
• Alloparental care: care from non-parental kin.

Parental Investment

• Definition: The degree to which parents compromise their ability to produce additional offspring to assist current offspring.
• Investment impacts offspring survival/reproduction, potentially creating a conflict with parental interests.

Reproductive Effort

• Includes energy and time investment as well as risks associated with reproduction.
• This activity can decrease reproductive success.
• Mating, caring for the offspring, and finding mates require significant energy/time, often increasing vulnerability to predators.

Reproductive Success

• Reproductive success is defined in terms of offspring born, weaned individuals, and mating availability.

Parental Experience Hypothesis

• This hypothesis suggests mothering behaviour in rhesus monkeys requires learning through experience.
• Primiparous females have a lower survival rate in the first few litters (55% loss in the first litter).

Sex Difference

• Male reproductive success varies more based on insemination frequency in females, compared to female reproductive success which is primarily limited by egg production.
• Bateman effect describes how variance in copulatory success is usually higher for males.

Parental Care: Main Theories

• Parental provision model (classical view): parental care benefits the offspring.
• Conflict model: parental and offspring interests can be in conflict.
• Symbiosis model (Transactional View): Mutualism, with reciprocal benefits for parents and offspring.

Conflict Theory

• Suggests that parental fitness is prioritized over other considerations
• With time, the cost is higher for the mother to provide care.
• Example: Nursing initiation in cats.

Issues with Conflict Theory

• The validity and measurement of conflict intensity are questioned in existing mathematical models.
• Many models concentrate on single-parent species with one litter per year.
• Issues with multiple paternity and varying parental care across seasons are mentioned.

Symbiosis (Mutualistic) Theory

• Parental care as a two-way exchange (transactional view).
• Study on urogenital licking and water transfer in rats.
• Female receives water from pups urine, which contributes to milk production.
• The peak water transfer coincides with peak milk production/consumption.

Male vs. Female Care: 3 Views

• Certainty of paternity: High certainty leads to higher paternal care while lower certainty leads to lower paternal care (e.g., in lions).
• Paternity is more uncertain in species with internal fertilisation.
• External fertilization species may show higher paternal care (e.g., sticklebacks) because of shared care obligations.
• Internal fertilization species tend to show higher maternal care, particularly in mammals.
• Mating system plays a role: monogamous species exhibit more paternal care.

Gamete Order Hypothesis

• The parent releasing the gametes last typically provides parental care, particularly in mammals.
• Fertilisation mode (internal/external) can determine which sex incurs primary parental care.

Association or Proximity Hypothesis

• Proximity between parents and offspring plays a critical role in determining parental behaviour.
• Internal/external fertilization and development also factor into who has the primary care responsibility.

Paternal Care (Species-Level)

• Paternal care is rare in fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals but common in birds, although often observed in biparental care situations.
• Specific criteria for defining paternal care in amphibians and reptiles are outlined.

Paternal Care is Often Associated with Monogamy or Polyandry

• The Northern Jacana exhibits an example of strong paternal involvement whereas the females exhibit typical male bird traits.

Alloparental Care

• Caring by individuals other than the biological parents, for example, "aunts" (females) or "allomothers" (females).
• This behaviour is frequent in cooperative breeding animals (mammals/birds) and certain species with monogamous or matrilineal polygynous mating.
• In kin selection perspective, it is a form of care that benefits related individuals.
• Alloparental care provides experience, potentially enriching future reproductive performance.

Helpers

• Kin helps raising young, often females ("helpers", "aunts").
• Helpers are characterized by episodic resource availability, and examples of this behaviour in red foxes are provided.
• Reasons for non-dispersal of helpers like risk of territory finding and mate finding are outlined.

Helping in Canids

• Paternal care characteristics are observed in red foxes, wolves, and coyotes.
• Different behaviours based on social system structure in each group are outlined.

Patterns of Paternal Care

• Paternal care is noted to be common in species with monogamy.
• Cooperative breeding is associated with monogamy, contributing to biparental care.
• A breakdown of paternal care percentages in mammals and birds is provided.

Evaluating Male Investment in Wild Canids

• Criteria for evaluating male parental care in wild canids (including grooming, carrying, feeding young, and defending).

Notes of Species Differences

• Paternal care varies within a given taxon.
• Examples of the African hunting dog, and various species of callitrichid monkeys are provided as examples.

Paternal Care in Canids

• A table displaying data about various canid species and their respective paternal care contributions.

From Parental Care to Mating System: The Case of Cooperative Breeding

• Cooperative breeding is rare in mammals (1%).
• Found in mammals/birds and is seen as common in 3 orders: Carnivora (canids and mongooses/meerkats) and primates (Callitrichidae - marmosets/tamarins).

Rodents Engaged in Cooperative Breeding

• Specific rodent families and species showcasing cooperative breeding.

Cooperative Breeding in Birds

• Cooperative breeding is seen in some bird species (3-8% of bird species).
• Types of birds showing high cooperative breeding are Coraciiformes, Piciformes, Passeriformes (such as various corvids and some passerines), with examples of various species given.

Mating Systems

• Fundamental mating systems, including monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, polygyny, polygynandry, promiscuity, are summarised.

Polygamy: Polygyny

• One male mating with many females.
• Types including resource defense, female defense, and male dominance.

Polygamy: Polyandry

• One female mating with many males.
• Uncommon but seen in combination with male polygyny or as an alternative to monogamy in some social canids.
• Often associated with sex role reversals, with males performing most of the parental care.

Examples of Polyandry

• Polyandry is more common in birds (e.g. hummingbirds, spotted sandpipers, Galapagos hawk).
• Though is arguably found in some mammal species, like the African wild dog.

Polygynandry & Promiscuity

• Males and females mate with multiple partners.
• Polygynandry: non-random choice and pairing of males and females).
• Promiscuity (polybrachygamy): random choice and pairing of males and females.

Alternative Mating Strategies

• Forced matings/copulations are employed when males can't get access to mates.
• Surreptitious mating or kleptogamy (sneak mating) are alternative mating strategies in birds and certain mammals.

Types of Monogamy 1

• Genetic monogamy: Males and females have pair bonds confirmed by DNA analysis.
• Sexual/mating monogamy: Exclusive relationship based on sexual interactions.
• Social monogamy: Living arrangement between a male and female (e.g., coyotes).

Types of Monogamy 2

• Monogamous social system = social monogamy
• Monogamous mating system refers to monogamous sexual and genetic relationships.

Monogamy: 7 Criteria

• Criteria for defining monogamy from Poole (1985) and Dewsbury (1988), including sexual dimorphism, exclusivity of mating, pair bond, biparental care, exclusion of strangers, reproductive suppression, and incest avoidance.

Reduced Sexual Dimorphism and Reproductive Variance

• A table relating mating system to body size, maturation, and reproductive variance for monogamy, polygny and polyandry, highlighting differences between mating systems.

Exclusivity of Mating

• Defining exclusivity in terms of the number of sexual partners (simultaneous or serial), genetic and biological methodologies are explained.

Pair Bond

• Exploring spatial proximity (e.g., shared territory/home range), and whether the association is continuous or discreet in the case of pair bonds.

Biparental (+) Care

• Detailing male/female involvement (high and often equal).
• Discusses alloparental care in the context of cooperative breeding.
• Outlines a continuum of helper involvement to extended, multigenerational families.

Other Criteria

• Discusses exclusion of non-kin, immediate/extended family dynamics, and reproductive suppression in certain social structures.
• Includes the concept of incest avoidance, although this doesn't apply to all species.

Monogamy vs. Polygamy

• Discusses the high degree of monogamy in bird species (approximately 90%), and the contrast with a lower percentage in mammals, where biparental care can occur in polygynous species.
• The role of resource availability and scarcity in affecting the prevalence of monogamy is considered.

Monogamy or "Monogamy"

• Points out that monogamy is often a relative preference, rather than an absolute standard.
• Examples of species exhibiting infidelity or extrapair copulations are detailed, even in cases that are seen as monogamous.

Taxonomies of Monogamy 1* (Mammals)

• Divides the social behaviours of monogamy into categories: Facultative and Obligate, with breakdowns of group size, and the different family structures.

Taxonomies of Monogamy 2* (Mammals)

• Spatial dimension taxonomy (territorial, female defense, dominance-based).
• Temporal dimension taxonomy (serial, permanent).

General Classification of Mating Organization

• A table summarising general versus spatial and temporal classifications for various mating behaviours.

Taxonomies of Monogamy 3* (Mammals)

• Grade I, II and III categories for monogamous mammalian behaviours.

Social and Mating Systems Taxonomy in Wild Canids

• Taxonomy of social and mating behaviours in wild canids is presented in tabulated form, detailing various species, classifications, mating systems and territories.

Raccoon Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides)

• Raccoon dog species are presented, and categorized.

Fennec (Fennecus/Vulpes zerda)

• Fennec species and its characteristics are presented, and categorized.

African Wild Dog (Lycaon pictus)

• African wild dog species, and its characteristics are presented, and categorized..

Bush Dog (Speothos venaticus)

• Bush dog species, and its characteristics are presented, and categorized..

Dholes (Cuon alpinus)

• Dhole (Cuon alpinus) species, and its characteristics are presented and categorized..

Other Differences with Other Bird Taxa

• Comparison of male nesting/incubation behaviours with other bird species, highlighting differences in waterfowl behaviour.

Reasoning the Paradox

• Discusses why males in waterfowl species may not exhibit significant paternal care.
• Factors like the philopatric behaviour of females and the critical role males play in early pos-mating stages (e.g., egg production) are highlighted.

Non-Monogamy in Waterfowl

• Types of non-monogamous mating behaviours in waterfowl, and examples (e.g. Anseranatidae, Grey-sided comb duck, Ruddy duck, Maccoa duck, Musk duck and Muscovy duck.

Perennial Monogamy

• Defining perennial monogamy in waterfowl.
• Contrasting this behaviour in ducks and other bird species, addressing varying reproductive patterns seen in different bird groups.

Divorce in Perennial Monogamy

• Discusses divorce rates in two waterfowl species, the barnacle goose and greylag goose, pointing out variation.

Cooperative Breeding and Brood Amalgamation in Waterfowl

• Discusses cooperative breeding and brood amalgamation in waterfowl behaviours in various waterfowl species.

Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) and Gang Brooding

• Canada goose reproductive behaviours, including cooperative breeding in gang brooding situations, are detailed.

Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) and Nannies (Babysitters): Form of Crèching

• Describes the use of nannies (babysitters) in Canada goose species as a form of crèching.
• Highlights the reciprocal cooperation in these situations.

Group Size and Population Regulation

• Discussing group size in relation to population regulation.

A Few Definitions...

• Definitions for terms like groups, extended families, and populations.

Models

• Different models used for explaining population regulation, including Wynne-Edwards' group selection model, Selye's general adaptation syndrome, Christian's model, Calhoun's model, and Sapolsky's data.

Factors in Demographic Regulation

• The regulation of population growth is impacted by both external and internal factors.

K Selected Species vs. R Selected Species

• Comparison of K and r selected species. The characteristics of each type are mentioned, and example species in each category are included.

Reproductive Strategies

• Discussion of K and r selected organisms in various species groups (reptiles, birds, mammals, amphibians, fish).

Internal and External Limiting Factors

• Discusses density-independent vs. density-dependent factors.
• These factors play a role in population size regulation and carrying capacity.

Mechanisms and Their "Timing"

• Suppressive behavioural, related physiological, and temporal factors for the mechanisms underpinning population regulation.
• The timing of these mechanisms in animals (e.g., in relation to preconception and postconception) is also described.

Summary of Variables and Mechanisms

• Summarizes physiological and behavioural factors affecting regulation of populations.

Causes and Mechanisms

• Factors and causes (inter- and intra-specific competition, and adaptation to environmental constraints) leading to population regulation.

Behavioural Mechanisms 1

• Key behavioural mechanisms of population regulation (epideictic displays, territory size modulations).

Behavioural Mechanisms 2

• Behavioural factors are explored in the context of overpopulation and social pathology
• Examples include behavioural sinks in mice and similar phenomena in human societies.

Physiological Mechanisms 1

• In-depth discussion of physiological mechanisms in relation to population regulation, focusing on the HPA axis.
• This includes mechanisms like Selye's general adaptation syndrome and Christian's model, detailing their impact on disease and exhaustion of adrenal glands.

Physiological Mechanisms 2

• The physiological role of suppression of various biological processes like immune, growth, or sexual process, in relation to population density and resource availability is explored.
• It includes the epigenetic effects that may persist across generations, even after regulation.

Physiological Mechanisms 3

• Physiological mechanisms (including pheromones) and regulation are further detailed.

Pheromonal Effects (Rodents)

• Describing pheromonal effects like the Bruce effect, in relation to pregnancy and male/female mating behaviours, from stress, and changes in density.
• The importance of such mechanisms in population regulation is detailed.

Problems within These Studies

• Potential problems with studies related to population regulation (e.g., unrealistic laboratory conditions, difficulty controlling natural factors).
• Key research gaps/limitations (i.e., evolutionary purpose of mechanisms).

Group Selection vs. Kin Selection

• Discussing the differing theoretical approaches to modelling population regulation.
• It clarifies the differences between group selection and kin selection.