Macronutrients: Carbohydrates

Macronutrients: Carbohydrates

• Know the DRI/DRA, AMDR, and the calorie count per gram of this nutrient for calculating calories in a food item.
• Organic compounds contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO).
• Daily recommended intake (DRI) is 130 grams daily.
• The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) is 45-65% of total categories.
• 4 calories per gram of energy.

Types and Functions of Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides (simple): Includes glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Disaccharides (simple): Includes sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
• Polysaccharides (complex): Includes starches and fiber.
• Simple carbohydrates break down faster, provide faster energy, and increase blood sugar levels more quickly.
• Complex carbohydrates require more metabolic processes to break down into energy.

Functions of Carbohydrates

• Providing energy.
• Regulating protein and fat metabolism.
• The brain and nervous system require carbohydrates for maximizing function.

Digestion & Absorption of Carbohydrates

• The gastrointestinal tract digests carbohydrates into monosaccharides for easy absorption.
• Major enzymes involved are salivary amylase (breaks down carbs in the mouth and pancreas).
• Other major enzymes include pepsin (breaks down proteins in stomach).
• Further enzymes are lipase (breaks down fats in the pancreas)
• Maltose, sucrase, and lactase in the small intestine break down sugars from carbohydrates.

Blood Glucose Homeostasis

• Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis maintain blood glucose.
• Metabolism involves chemical processes maintaining homeostasis and blood glucose balance.
• Excess glucose converts to glycogen and is stored in the liver and muscles.
• Glycogenesis: Glucose converts to glycogen, storing extra simple sugars in the liver and muscles.
• Insulin lowers blood sugar through glycogenesis.
• Glycogenolysis: Glycogen breaks down into free glucose the body can use.
• Glucagon raises blood sugar through glycogenolysis.

Ketosis

• Ketones become the main energy source for the body and brain.
• Ketosis is a metabolic process where the body uses fat as the main energy source due to insufficient carbs.
• A keto diet reduces carbohydrate intake or fasting.
• The diet lowers blood glucose and insulin and increases burning of consumed and stored fat.
• The liver breaks down fat into ketones, releases them into the bloodstream, and the brain uses them for energy.

Glycemic Response

• It measures how food affects blood glucose concentration, particularly how quickly food raises glucose levels.
• Factors influencing the glycemic response are the amounts of fats, fiber, and acid in food (slowing digestion).
• Other factors include processing degree, preparation methods, and ripeness.
• Glycemic Index categorizes foods.
• The higher the number, the higher the glycemic response.
• Ranking of carbohydrates based on how they raise blood sugar levels.

Glycemic Index Categories

• High GI (≥70): Digested/absorbed quickly, raises blood sugar faster, examples of low fiber and processed foods. Includes watermelon and white bread
• Medium GI (56-69): Affects blood sugar but does not raise it as much and includes fruits like grapes, and grains such as brown rice.
• Low GI (≤55): Slowly digested/absorbed; slower rise in blood sugar, and is high in fiber - Includes apples, oranges and lentils

Factors Affecting Glycemic Index

• These include sugars, processing, ripeness, cooking methods, type of starch, acid content, and fat/protein content.
• Hyperglycemia is high blood glucose, while hypoglycemia is low blood glucose.

Fibers

• Fibers cannot be broken down by the human digestive system.
• They are components of plant cells.
• Adequate intake recommendation is 25g/day for females and 38g/day for males.

Soluble vs Insoluble Dietary Fibers

• Soluble fibers (viscous) dissolve in water for a gel-like substance and helps with constipation and diarrhea. Examples are oats, barley, and legumes.
• Insoluble fibers (non-fermentable) trap water pulled from the intestine, which can cause the stool to harden. Examples are flax seeds, cauliflower, and nuts.

Benefits of Fiber

• Fiber aids in bowel elimination, adds bulk to feces, lowers cholesterol, decreases the incidence of intestinal cancer.
• Fiber regulates blood glucose by slowing the rate of glucose absorption.

Whole vs Refined Grains: Examples

• Whole Grains include benefits of whole grains and identifies the negatives of refined grains. 100% whole grains is labeled on packaging and is made with whole grains
• Whole (unrefined grains) contain original components for easy digestion, including bran, endosperm, and germ.
• This promotes healthy digestion, regulated blood sugar/lowers disease risks like heart disease/type 2 diabetes. Examples include rice, corn, and oats.
• Refined grains remove nutritious parts/increase heart disease, obesity, and inflammation. Enriched grains mean added ingredients
  • Corn: Cornmeal, enriched cornmeal, corn flour, degerminated corn flour.
  • Oats: Oat Bran, refined oat flour
  • Rice: White rice
  • Wheat: white flour

Essential vs Nonessential Amino Acids

• There are 20 amino acids total.
• 9 essential amino acids must be acquired from the diet because the body cannot make them.
• 11 non-essential amino acids can be made by cells.
• Protein Daily Recommended Intake (0.8 g/kg for healthy adults, 10-35% of total calories).
• Protein is 4 cal/g.

Functions of Protein

• Tissue building and maintenance.
• Nitrogen balance.
• They transport nutrients, support the immune system, and regulate fluid/electrolytes.
• Amino acids maintain acid-base balance and facilitate chemical reactions in the body.

Quality of Proteins

• Complete: Adequate amounts of all 9 essential amino acids, bioavailable and can be found in animal sources such as meat, eggs, and dairy
• Nearly Complete: Can be found in soy and quinoa
• Incomplete: All plant proteins that contain an insufficient amount of amino acids and need to be eaten more to get all the essential acids/limits protein synthesis
• Complementary: 2 incomplete proteins together such as black beans and rice.

Protein Digestion and Absorption

• Pepsin is produced in the stomach and breaks down proteins into smaller peptides.
• Enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin digest peptides in the small intestine into amino acids.
• Then absorbed into the intestinal lining and bloodstream.
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin are pancreatic enzymes that break down peptides into smaller fragments.
• Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase are enzymes present in the small intestine that break down dipeptides and tripeptides.

Vegetarianism

• Lacto-vegetarian: Excludes meat, fish, poultry, and eggs but includes dairy products.
• Ovo-vegetarian: Excludes meat, poultry, seafood, and dairy but allows eggs.
• Lacto-ovo vegetarian: Excludes meat, fish, and poultry but includes dairy and eggs.
• Pescetarian: Excludes meat, poultry, and dairy but allows fish.
• Vegan: Excludes all animal products.
• Vegetarian and vegan diets are lower in fat, higher in fiber, rich in vitamins/minerals, and good for GI health.
• These diets decrease obesity, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes.
• Disadvantages: Low protein/fat, potential nutrient deficiencies that may require supplementation.

Protein Energy Malnutrition

• Kwashiorkor: Enough total calories are consumed, but not enough protein which leads to protein deficiencies, muscle weakness, and swelling.
• Swelling is a symptom of fluid imbalances.
• Marasmus: A lack of nutrients together, meaning not enough protein and calories, which can lead to wasting.

Macronutrient Lipids

• Functions of Fats: Provide energy, palatability, satiety.
• Also insulate and cushion organs, process food, facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, and regulate body temperature.
• 20-35% of total calories from fat is the Recommended Daily Amount (RDI), and less than 10% should be from saturated fats.
• Fat contains 9 calories per gram of energy.

Types of Fats

• (1) Triglycerides (fats and oils).
• (2) Phospholipids (lecithin) are fat and water soluble act as emulsifiers.
• (3) Sterols (cholesterol).
• Triglycerides are 95% of fat in food.
• Supply energy combined with glycerol, allows transport of soluble vitamins from adipose tissue.

Fatty Acids

• Saturated Fatty Acids: Solid at room temperature (animal sources) increasing health risks - consume less than 20g a day. Found in foods such as beef, butter, and coconut oil

• Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Reduces health risks in foods mostly from plant sources.

  • Monounsaturated: One double bond that may reduce heart disease risk found in olive oil, canola oil, and peanut oil.
  • Polyunsaturated: Has multiple bonds found in soybean oil, corn oil, and fatty fish

• Essential fatty acids must be supplemented by diet.

  • Omega-3 fatty acids (n-3): Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) from soybeans/flax seeds, Eicosatetraenoic acid (EPA) from fatty fish
  • Omega-6 fatty acids (n-6): Arachidonic acid (ARA) found in oil and some meats

• Digestion & Absorption include triglycerides being digested into lingual lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase

• Gastric Lipase is secreted by the cells and helps break down molecules, like bile

• Bile facilitates fat emulsification formed in the small intestine and aids in triglycerides being broken down in smaller droplets

• Intestinallipase aids in the breakdown of triglycerides and are then absorbed by enterocytes

• Cholesterol is found in animal tissues, and sterols have no source of good/bad cholesterol.

• Regulated by HDL and LDL

LDL and HDL

• LDL carries cholesterol to the cells, it increases cardiovascular disease risk
• HDL removes excess cholesterol and transports it to the liver for disposal.

Vitamins: Water Soluble vs. Fat Soluble

• Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water, are easily absorbed, and excess is excreted due to toxicity being rare. Does not build up in the bloodstream
  • Vitamin B is a complex cell involving metabolism and functions
  • Vitamin C involves oranges and tissue building and structures
• Fat-soluble vitamins use lipids in the liver and are stored instead of excreted. Potential for Vitamin A, D, E, and K

Water-Soluble Vitamins

• Vitamin C: Antioxidant, tissue building, and iron absorption from fruits and vegetables and can cause scurvy with decreased iron
• Thiamin: Muscle energy, metabolism from meats and legumes and results in Beriberi from headache and fatigue symptoms
• Riboflavin: Assists in energy from leafy vegetables and fruits that can cause scaly patches and cracked lips

B Vitamins

• Niacin (B3): Metabolizes fat and steroids and causes Pellagra leading to skin lesions. Found in nuts
• Pantothenic (B5): Metabolizes carbs and proteins and leads to a generalized body failure
• Pyridoxine: Assists neurotransmitters to create reactions and anemia involving seizures

Water-Soluble Vitamins Continued

• Folate: Synthesizes amino acids and leads to megaloblastic red blood cells. Liver and leafy greens
• Cobalamin: Activates folate and blood for poor muscle coordination. Animal Sources
• Biotin: Synthesizes fatty acids for psychological reactions. Milk, eggs, and dark vegetables

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

• B Complex vitamins are critical for neurological functions & metabolism found in grains and leaf vegetables. Deficiency causes anemia and disturbances/skin problems
  • Niacin (B3): Metabolizes fats, alcohol, and glucose
    • Deficiency in brain functions from meats and legumes
    • Pyridoxine(B6): Needed for cellular production and hemoglobin
    • Deficiency causes seizures in wheat
• Folate synthesizes new cell and prevents uterus problems -Deficiency caused megaloblastic anemia
• Folate is found in greens, legumes, and liver
• Cobalamin(B12) necessary to activate folate
  • Deficiency leading to weight loss Vitamin A
• MainAction involves strength ad normal vision
• Found in dairy and results in a thick cornea
• Vitamin D
• maintains blood and supports immune system. In fish and results in fragile bones
• Vitamin E helps preserve membranes in oils and can cause edema
• Vitamin K synthesizes blood for clotting

Populations at Risk for Deficiency

• Pregnant women, older adults, poverty, chronic alcoholism, and drug abuse
• Electrolytes are minerals with electrical charges.
• The average adult needs 100g of each mineral daily.

Major Minerals

• Calcium needed for transmission
  • Dairy and calcium absorption is low leading to osteoporosis
• Phosphorus transfers dairy causing low calcium levels and low function
• Sodium maintains fluid intake in sauce
• Muscle cramping and loss occurs in salt

Intracellular/Volume

• Potassium maintains fluid inside volume found in tomoatoes Muscle issues and numbness occurs from fruit deficiency
• Diarrhea from leafy vegetables and causes seizures
• Electrolyte imbalance and bloating issues are a condition of chloride as well
• High proteins cause damage, therefore not taking enough leads to malnourishment

Trace Minerals

• A hormone is dependent on iodine for function, but too much can lead to glands enlarging
• Iron with hemoglobin can result in fatigue

Anemia and Nutrients

• Too much iron with heme can come about from seafoods
• Overworking the muscles leads to exertion and body dysregulation A high amount of water leads to fluid overload
• Fluoride bonds with calcium and is added to water for teeth strength with a bit of fluoride

Avoiding Problems with Food/Hydration

• Averting manifestatons in kidney skin. To help hydrate the skin intake 3 liters
• Athletes stay hydrated, and foods like cucumbers help

Diet

• Micronutrients and metabolism work to promote movement
• Food groups follow 1800 calories per day for athletes
• Fiber with small fat snacks are important
• Organic and small livestock is optimal and can be done in animal farms, like milk or yogurt