LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

• A potent hallucinogen comes from Ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea)
• It belongs to the group of serotonergic psychedelics
• It is a derivative of lysergic acid chemically
• Acts as a serotonin receptor agonist (5-HT2A) in the brain
• It causes altered perception and hallucinations

Effects

• Hallucinations may be visual and auditory
• Alters perception of time and reality
• Synesthesia (mixing of senses, e.g., "hearing colors")
• Can cause euphoria or paranoia
• Increases heart rate and blood pressure
• Effects start to be felt within 30-90 minutes
• Effects last for 6-12 hours

Toxicology and Adverse Effects

• Acute effects include anxiety and panic attacks, delusions and paranoia, tachycardia, and hypertension
• Chronic effects include Flashbacks (Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder, HPPD)
• May result in persistent psychosis in vulnerable individuals
• Tolerance develops quickly, but physical dependence does not

Forensic Relevance

• LSD is a Schedule I drug under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS Act), 1985
• Can be detected in biological samples
• Chromatography: Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
• Spectroscopy: Mass Spectrometry (MS), UV-Vis Spectroscopy

Amphetamines

• Stimulants that affect the central nervous system (CNS)

Common Derivatives

• Amphetamine (Benzedrine)
• Methamphetamine (Crystal Meth)
• MDMA (Ecstasy)
• Increases the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the brain

Effects

• Increased alertness and energy
• Euphoria
• Decreased appetite
• Increases heart rate and blood pressure
• High doses may cause aggression and paranoia

Toxicology and Adverse Effects

• Result in acute toxicity
• Hyperactivity
• Increased body temperature (hyperthermia)
• Anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations
• Results in chronic use
• Tolerance and dependence
• Psychosis similar to schizophrenia
• Severe weight loss

Forensic Relevance

• Detection: Can be done using Immunoassays (ELISA) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)
• Controlled under NDPS Act
• Methamphetamine is a Schedule II drug due to its high abuse potential

Benzodiazepines

• Are sedative-hypnotic drugs used in anxiety and insomnia treatment

Common Examples

• Diazepam (Valium)
• Lorazepam (Ativan)
• Alprazolam (Xanax)
• Clonazepam (Klonopin)
• Enhances the action of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) in the brain and causes sedative effects

Effects

• Sedation and relaxation
• Muscle relaxation
• Reduced anxiety
• Sleep induction

Toxicology and Adverse Effects

• Acute overdose: Drowsiness, confusion
• Respiratory depression (severe in combination with alcohol)
• Chronic use: Tolerance and dependence
• Withdrawal symptoms: Anxiety, tremors, seizures
• Forensic Relevance
• Detection: Urine and blood analysis using GC-MS, LC-MS
• Some are Schedule IV drugs under the NDPS Act

Phenothiazines

• Antipsychotic medications that treats schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders

Common Examples

• Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
• Trifluoperazine
• Fluphenazine
• Blocks dopamine D2 receptors in the brain

Effects

• Reduces psychotic symptoms (hallucinations, delusions)
• Sedation
• Anti-emetic action (used in nausea/vomiting)
• Acute toxicity
• Hypotension, dizziness
• Blurred vision, dry mouth

Chronic Use

• Extrapyramidal symptoms (tremors, rigidity)
• Tardive dyskinesia (irreversible movement disorder)
• Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) – life-threatening condition with high fever, confusion, muscle rigidity

Forensic Relevance

• Detection: LC-MS, HPLC, Immunoassay
• Are prescription drugs, not commonly abused

Barbiturates

• CNS depressants used as sedatives, anesthetics, and anti-epileptics

Common Examples

• Phenobarbital (long-acting)
• Secobarbital (short-acting)
• Pentobarbital (short-acting)
• Enhances GABA activity, leading to sedation and hypnosis

Effects

• Sedation, hypnosis
• Reduced anxiety
• High doses can cause respiratory depression and coma

Toxicology and Adverse Effects

• Acute Toxicity: Respiratory depression
• Hypotension, bradycardia
• Coma, death in severe overdose
• Chronic Use: Dependence and withdrawal symptoms
• Cognitive impairment
• Urine/Blood tests can be done via GC-MS and Immunoassays
• Schedule II and III drugs under NDPS Act