Questions and Answers
Living in communities provides opportunities for fulfilling personal relationships.
True
The selfish point of view considers the needs of others and their core values.
False
Ethics involves a rational examination and evaluation of morality.
True
Alexis is likely to find many available PCs at her high school during the school day.
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Communities exist when the costs outweigh the benefits.
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Alexis efficiently completes her extra research projects by using library resources.
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The antispam organization helped all internet users without causing any harm.
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The E D S P used video cameras to reduce speeding by 90 percent.
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The software engineer's start-up developed a mobile app that is ready for market without bugs.
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Subjective relativism claims that moral principles are universal and not dependent on context.
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Living in communities can provide a higher standard of living due to economic specialization.
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The ethical point of view focuses only on one's own self-interests and desires.
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Society is defined as a group of people governed by a system of rules that promotes individual gain.
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Morality refers to an individual's personal beliefs and opinions about right and wrong.
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Alexis's experience in the library highlights the issue of access to resources for students from lower-income families.
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The antispam organization's blacklist helped reduce spam but harmed innocent users in the East Asian country.
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The East Dakota State Police acted deceitfully by installing video cameras to catch speeders.
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Alexis graduated from high school with straight As due to her efforts in utilizing the library's resources.
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The video camera system used by the East Dakota State Police had a negligible impact on speeding behavior over six months.
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Subjective relativism claims that moral judgments are objective and universally agreed upon.
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Communities exist when the benefits outweigh the costs.
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Alexis successfully accesses the library's unused PCs to enhance her research projects without facing any challenges.
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The ethical point of view prioritizes self-interest over the consideration of others' core values.
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Morality delineates what individuals ought to do in various situations, reflecting a society’s conduct.
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Ethics involves a superficial analysis of actions without considering their moral implications.
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The new speed detection system implemented by the East Dakota State Police resulted in a reduction of speeding incidents by 80 percent.
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Subjective relativism posits that moral judgments are universally agreed upon, regardless of personal perspectives.
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Alexis' use of library resources contributed positively to her academic achievements without any unfair implications for others.
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The antispam organization faced no backlash for creating a blacklist that prevented innocent users from sending emails.
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The software engineer's start-up faced pressure to release its mobile app due to competitors entering the market.
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Study Notes
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
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Description
Explore the dynamics of living in communities, highlighting their benefits such as security and economic specialization, alongside the costs like obligations and potential punishments. Delve into ethical perspectives on morality and society, discussing core values and differing worldviews.
