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Questions and Answers
Communities exist because benefits outweigh ______.
Communities exist because benefits outweigh ______.
costs
A society’s rules of conduct are referred to as ______.
A society’s rules of conduct are referred to as ______.
morality
The ______ point of view considers only your own self and your core values.
The ______ point of view considers only your own self and your core values.
selfish
Ethics involves the rational examination of ______.
Ethics involves the rational examination of ______.
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Alexis needs a ______ to attend college due to her family's financial situation.
Alexis needs a ______ to attend college due to her family's financial situation.
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Alexis graduated from high school with straight ___.
Alexis graduated from high school with straight ___.
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The antispam organization put the addresses of these ISPs on its ___.
The antispam organization put the addresses of these ISPs on its ___.
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The East Dakota State Police had video cameras connected to computers that could detect cars traveling more than ___ miles per hour above the speed limit.
The East Dakota State Police had video cameras connected to computers that could detect cars traveling more than ___ miles per hour above the speed limit.
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Your company aims to be 'first to market' to avoid being outperformed by a ___ company.
Your company aims to be 'first to market' to avoid being outperformed by a ___ company.
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Ethics focuses on people's voluntary, moral ___.
Ethics focuses on people's voluntary, moral ___.
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Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself based on ______.
Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself based on ______.
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Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' depend upon a society’s actual moral ______.
Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' depend upon a society’s actual moral ______.
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According to Divine Command Theory, good actions are those aligned with ______’s will.
According to Divine Command Theory, good actions are those aligned with ______’s will.
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Ethical egoism focuses on actions that provide the maximum long-term ______ for oneself.
Ethical egoism focuses on actions that provide the maximum long-term ______ for oneself.
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Kantianism emphasizes the critical importance of ______ in making moral decisions.
Kantianism emphasizes the critical importance of ______ in making moral decisions.
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According to the Categorical Imperative, you should act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___ .
According to the Categorical Imperative, you should act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___ .
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Carla submitted another person's work as her own, deceiving her professor and treating the professor as a ___ to an end.
Carla submitted another person's work as her own, deceiving her professor and treating the professor as a ___ to an end.
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The ___ of Utility is the principle that an action is right if it increases the total happiness of the affected parties.
The ___ of Utility is the principle that an action is right if it increases the total happiness of the affected parties.
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In act utilitarianism, a right action is one that maximizes the ___ of happiness for all affected beings.
In act utilitarianism, a right action is one that maximizes the ___ of happiness for all affected beings.
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Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral ___ that, if universally followed, would maximize happiness.
Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral ___ that, if universally followed, would maximize happiness.
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One of the benefits of living in communities is a higher standard of living from economic ___.
One of the benefits of living in communities is a higher standard of living from economic ___.
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According to the ethical point of view, it is important to respect other people and their ___ values.
According to the ethical point of view, it is important to respect other people and their ___ values.
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The definition of a society is an association of people organized under a system of ___.
The definition of a society is an association of people organized under a system of ___.
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Morality refers to what people ought or ought not to do in various ___.
Morality refers to what people ought or ought not to do in various ___.
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Ethics involves a rational examination of ___ to evaluate people's behavior.
Ethics involves a rational examination of ___ to evaluate people's behavior.
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Alexis efficiently completes her extra research projects using the library's ___ and printers.
Alexis efficiently completes her extra research projects using the library's ___ and printers.
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The amount of spam received by typical email users in the United States dropped by ___ percent after the organization created the blacklist.
The amount of spam received by typical email users in the United States dropped by ___ percent after the organization created the blacklist.
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The East Dakota State Police installed video cameras to detect cars traveling more than five miles per hour above the ___ limit.
The East Dakota State Police installed video cameras to detect cars traveling more than five miles per hour above the ___ limit.
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Your company may lose its business if a well-established company releases a similar product ___ your startup's release.
Your company may lose its business if a well-established company releases a similar product ___ your startup's release.
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Ethics involves rational examination of actions and the moral decisions that a person makes in their ___ choices.
Ethics involves rational examination of actions and the moral decisions that a person makes in their ___ choices.
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Tolerance is the willingness to accept and respect these differences without attempting to impose one's own ______ on others.
Tolerance is the willingness to accept and respect these differences without attempting to impose one's own ______ on others.
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Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' can vary based on a society's actual moral ______.
Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' can vary based on a society's actual moral ______.
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Divine Command Theory asserts that good actions align with God's ______.
Divine Command Theory asserts that good actions align with God's ______.
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Ethical egoism promotes focusing exclusively on one's own ______.
Ethical egoism promotes focusing exclusively on one's own ______.
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Kantianism stresses that only a good ______ is unconditionally good.
Kantianism stresses that only a good ______ is unconditionally good.
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According to Kantianism, it is wrong to use another person solely as a means to an ___.
According to Kantianism, it is wrong to use another person solely as a means to an ___.
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In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
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A perfect duty is a duty that one is obliged to fulfill without ___.
A perfect duty is a duty that one is obliged to fulfill without ___.
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Utilitarianism is a ______________ theory that emphasizes the consequences of actions.
Utilitarianism is a ______________ theory that emphasizes the consequences of actions.
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A proposed rule in rule utilitarianism should lead to the greatest increase in total ___.
A proposed rule in rule utilitarianism should lead to the greatest increase in total ___.
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Living in communities can facilitate the exchange of goods and __________.
Living in communities can facilitate the exchange of goods and __________.
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Communities are often formed due to the benefits outweighing the __________.
Communities are often formed due to the benefits outweighing the __________.
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The __________ point of view involves respecting other people and their core values.
The __________ point of view involves respecting other people and their core values.
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A society is an association of people organized under a system of __________.
A society is an association of people organized under a system of __________.
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Morality refers to a society's rules of __________.
Morality refers to a society's rules of __________.
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Alexis earned a full-ride scholarship to attend a prestigious ______.
Alexis earned a full-ride scholarship to attend a prestigious ______.
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The antispam organization blacklisted certain ______ to reduce spam emails.
The antispam organization blacklisted certain ______ to reduce spam emails.
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The East Dakota State Police used sophisticated _____ recognition software to detect speeding drivers.
The East Dakota State Police used sophisticated _____ recognition software to detect speeding drivers.
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The aim of the East Dakota State Legislature's law was to reduce accidents caused by ______.
The aim of the East Dakota State Legislature's law was to reduce accidents caused by ______.
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The organization aimed to protect email servers by working with Internet service providers in an East Asian ______.
The organization aimed to protect email servers by working with Internet service providers in an East Asian ______.
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Subjective relativism blurs the line between doing what you think is right and doing what you feel like _____.
Subjective relativism blurs the line between doing what you think is right and doing what you feel like _____.
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Cultural relativism argues that what is considered 'right' and 'wrong' depends on a society's actual moral _____.
Cultural relativism argues that what is considered 'right' and 'wrong' depends on a society's actual moral _____.
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According to Divine Command Theory, bad actions are those that are contrary to God's _____.
According to Divine Command Theory, bad actions are those that are contrary to God's _____.
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Kantianism posits that the only thing that is good without qualification is a good _____ .
Kantianism posits that the only thing that is good without qualification is a good _____ .
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Ethical egoism suggests that individuals should focus on their own self-_____.
Ethical egoism suggests that individuals should focus on their own self-_____.
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The Categorical Imperative states that one must act so that they treat both themselves and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___.
The Categorical Imperative states that one must act so that they treat both themselves and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___.
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In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
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Carla's decision to submit a purchased report illustrates the violation of the ___ duty she has towards her professor.
Carla's decision to submit a purchased report illustrates the violation of the ___ duty she has towards her professor.
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Utilitarianism is primarily concerned with the ____ of an action rather than the intention behind it.
Utilitarianism is primarily concerned with the ____ of an action rather than the intention behind it.
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Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral rules that, if universally followed, would maximize total ___.
Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral rules that, if universally followed, would maximize total ___.
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Study Notes
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Studying That Suits You
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