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Questions and Answers
Communities exist because benefits outweigh ______.
Communities exist because benefits outweigh ______.
costs
A society’s rules of conduct are referred to as ______.
A society’s rules of conduct are referred to as ______.
morality
The ______ point of view considers only your own self and your core values.
The ______ point of view considers only your own self and your core values.
selfish
Ethics involves the rational examination of ______.
Ethics involves the rational examination of ______.
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Alexis needs a ______ to attend college due to her family's financial situation.
Alexis needs a ______ to attend college due to her family's financial situation.
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Alexis graduated from high school with straight ___.
Alexis graduated from high school with straight ___.
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The antispam organization put the addresses of these ISPs on its ___.
The antispam organization put the addresses of these ISPs on its ___.
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The East Dakota State Police had video cameras connected to computers that could detect cars traveling more than ___ miles per hour above the speed limit.
The East Dakota State Police had video cameras connected to computers that could detect cars traveling more than ___ miles per hour above the speed limit.
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Your company aims to be 'first to market' to avoid being outperformed by a ___ company.
Your company aims to be 'first to market' to avoid being outperformed by a ___ company.
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Ethics focuses on people's voluntary, moral ___.
Ethics focuses on people's voluntary, moral ___.
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Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself based on ______.
Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself based on ______.
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Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' depend upon a society’s actual moral ______.
Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' depend upon a society’s actual moral ______.
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According to Divine Command Theory, good actions are those aligned with ______’s will.
According to Divine Command Theory, good actions are those aligned with ______’s will.
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Ethical egoism focuses on actions that provide the maximum long-term ______ for oneself.
Ethical egoism focuses on actions that provide the maximum long-term ______ for oneself.
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Kantianism emphasizes the critical importance of ______ in making moral decisions.
Kantianism emphasizes the critical importance of ______ in making moral decisions.
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According to the Categorical Imperative, you should act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___ .
According to the Categorical Imperative, you should act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___ .
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Carla submitted another person's work as her own, deceiving her professor and treating the professor as a ___ to an end.
Carla submitted another person's work as her own, deceiving her professor and treating the professor as a ___ to an end.
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The ___ of Utility is the principle that an action is right if it increases the total happiness of the affected parties.
The ___ of Utility is the principle that an action is right if it increases the total happiness of the affected parties.
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In act utilitarianism, a right action is one that maximizes the ___ of happiness for all affected beings.
In act utilitarianism, a right action is one that maximizes the ___ of happiness for all affected beings.
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Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral ___ that, if universally followed, would maximize happiness.
Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral ___ that, if universally followed, would maximize happiness.
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One of the benefits of living in communities is a higher standard of living from economic ___.
One of the benefits of living in communities is a higher standard of living from economic ___.
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According to the ethical point of view, it is important to respect other people and their ___ values.
According to the ethical point of view, it is important to respect other people and their ___ values.
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The definition of a society is an association of people organized under a system of ___.
The definition of a society is an association of people organized under a system of ___.
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Morality refers to what people ought or ought not to do in various ___.
Morality refers to what people ought or ought not to do in various ___.
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Ethics involves a rational examination of ___ to evaluate people's behavior.
Ethics involves a rational examination of ___ to evaluate people's behavior.
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Alexis efficiently completes her extra research projects using the library's ___ and printers.
Alexis efficiently completes her extra research projects using the library's ___ and printers.
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The amount of spam received by typical email users in the United States dropped by ___ percent after the organization created the blacklist.
The amount of spam received by typical email users in the United States dropped by ___ percent after the organization created the blacklist.
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The East Dakota State Police installed video cameras to detect cars traveling more than five miles per hour above the ___ limit.
The East Dakota State Police installed video cameras to detect cars traveling more than five miles per hour above the ___ limit.
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Your company may lose its business if a well-established company releases a similar product ___ your startup's release.
Your company may lose its business if a well-established company releases a similar product ___ your startup's release.
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Ethics involves rational examination of actions and the moral decisions that a person makes in their ___ choices.
Ethics involves rational examination of actions and the moral decisions that a person makes in their ___ choices.
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Tolerance is the willingness to accept and respect these differences without attempting to impose one's own ______ on others.
Tolerance is the willingness to accept and respect these differences without attempting to impose one's own ______ on others.
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Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' can vary based on a society's actual moral ______.
Cultural relativism suggests that 'right' and 'wrong' can vary based on a society's actual moral ______.
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Divine Command Theory asserts that good actions align with God's ______.
Divine Command Theory asserts that good actions align with God's ______.
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Ethical egoism promotes focusing exclusively on one's own ______.
Ethical egoism promotes focusing exclusively on one's own ______.
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Kantianism stresses that only a good ______ is unconditionally good.
Kantianism stresses that only a good ______ is unconditionally good.
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According to Kantianism, it is wrong to use another person solely as a means to an ___.
According to Kantianism, it is wrong to use another person solely as a means to an ___.
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In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
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A perfect duty is a duty that one is obliged to fulfill without ___.
A perfect duty is a duty that one is obliged to fulfill without ___.
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Utilitarianism is a ______________ theory that emphasizes the consequences of actions.
Utilitarianism is a ______________ theory that emphasizes the consequences of actions.
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A proposed rule in rule utilitarianism should lead to the greatest increase in total ___.
A proposed rule in rule utilitarianism should lead to the greatest increase in total ___.
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Living in communities can facilitate the exchange of goods and __________.
Living in communities can facilitate the exchange of goods and __________.
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Communities are often formed due to the benefits outweighing the __________.
Communities are often formed due to the benefits outweighing the __________.
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The __________ point of view involves respecting other people and their core values.
The __________ point of view involves respecting other people and their core values.
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A society is an association of people organized under a system of __________.
A society is an association of people organized under a system of __________.
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Morality refers to a society's rules of __________.
Morality refers to a society's rules of __________.
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Alexis earned a full-ride scholarship to attend a prestigious ______.
Alexis earned a full-ride scholarship to attend a prestigious ______.
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The antispam organization blacklisted certain ______ to reduce spam emails.
The antispam organization blacklisted certain ______ to reduce spam emails.
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The East Dakota State Police used sophisticated _____ recognition software to detect speeding drivers.
The East Dakota State Police used sophisticated _____ recognition software to detect speeding drivers.
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The aim of the East Dakota State Legislature's law was to reduce accidents caused by ______.
The aim of the East Dakota State Legislature's law was to reduce accidents caused by ______.
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The organization aimed to protect email servers by working with Internet service providers in an East Asian ______.
The organization aimed to protect email servers by working with Internet service providers in an East Asian ______.
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Subjective relativism blurs the line between doing what you think is right and doing what you feel like _____.
Subjective relativism blurs the line between doing what you think is right and doing what you feel like _____.
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Cultural relativism argues that what is considered 'right' and 'wrong' depends on a society's actual moral _____.
Cultural relativism argues that what is considered 'right' and 'wrong' depends on a society's actual moral _____.
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According to Divine Command Theory, bad actions are those that are contrary to God's _____.
According to Divine Command Theory, bad actions are those that are contrary to God's _____.
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Kantianism posits that the only thing that is good without qualification is a good _____ .
Kantianism posits that the only thing that is good without qualification is a good _____ .
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Ethical egoism suggests that individuals should focus on their own self-_____.
Ethical egoism suggests that individuals should focus on their own self-_____.
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The Categorical Imperative states that one must act so that they treat both themselves and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___.
The Categorical Imperative states that one must act so that they treat both themselves and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an ___.
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In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
In act utilitarianism, an action is considered good if its benefits exceed its ___.
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Carla's decision to submit a purchased report illustrates the violation of the ___ duty she has towards her professor.
Carla's decision to submit a purchased report illustrates the violation of the ___ duty she has towards her professor.
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Utilitarianism is primarily concerned with the ____ of an action rather than the intention behind it.
Utilitarianism is primarily concerned with the ____ of an action rather than the intention behind it.
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Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral rules that, if universally followed, would maximize total ___.
Rule utilitarianism applies the Principle of Utility to moral rules that, if universally followed, would maximize total ___.
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Study Notes
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
Living in Communities: Benefits and Costs
- Communities provide security against external dangers and enable the exchange of goods and services.
- Economic specialization in communities can lead to a higher standard of living and personal relationships.
- Costs of living in communities include prohibitions and obligations for certain actions, with nonconformance potentially leading to punishment.
- The existence of communities is justified by the benefits outweighing the associated costs.
Ethical Perspectives
- Core values shared by individuals typically revolve around life, happiness, and accomplishment.
- Two worldviews exist:
- Selfish: Focuses solely on personal interests.
- Ethical: Respects others and acknowledges their values.
Definitions
- Society: A group of individuals organized under rules that promote member welfare over time.
- Morality: The rules of conduct that dictate right and wrong actions in societal contexts.
- Ethics: The rational analysis of morality that evaluates behavior against established moral principles.
Importance of Studying Ethics
- Ethical studies encourage individuals to consider diverse perspectives on issues, leading to personal growth and better decision-making.
- Recognizes the complexity of ethical dilemmas which often require deep analysis for resolution.
Ethical Scenarios
- Scenarios presented include dilemmas involving deceit, harm, benefits, and ethical evaluation of actions.
- Common questions arise regarding fairness, rights violations, and alternative actions to achieve goals.
Ethical Theories Overview
- Subjective Relativism: Moral judgments are seen as personal and culturally dependent, leading to both subjective conclusions and challenges in establishing universal moral standards.
- Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are defined by societal morals which vary across cultures and time periods, but faces criticism for potentially allowing harmful practices to persist.
Divine Command Theory
- Aligns right actions with God's will as disclosed in holy texts, but is criticized for inconsistency across different scriptures and impracticality in diverse societies.
Ethical Egoism
- Suggests individuals should act in their own self-interest, promoting maximum personal benefit. However, this approach can lead to immoral actions and neglect others' needs.
Kantianism
- Centers on the concept of good will, asserting that moral actions must respect others as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
- Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative guide ethical decision-making:
- Act only according to principles that can be universalized.
- Treat individuals as moral equals deserving of dignity.
Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates actions based on their outcomes, advocating for actions that maximize overall happiness.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Normative approach that supports moral rules leading to general happiness when universally followed.
Practical Evaluations
- Ethical scenarios evaluate the anticipated benefits and harms of actions, with various stakeholders considered.
- Case studies illustrate the complexities of ethical decision-making and the potential for societal impact.### Case for Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral decisions can be guided by established rules rather than individual utilitarian calculations.
- Moral rules can withstand exceptional situations without losing their validity.
- Reduces issues related to moral luck, where outcomes influence moral judgment.
- Minimizes bias in moral decision-making by relying on consistent rules.
- Appeals broadly to diverse social groups, providing a common ethical framework.
Case Against Utilitarianism in General
- Requires all consequences to be measured on a single scale, necessitating uniform units for calculation.
- Forces quantification of human life value in certain scenarios, raising ethical concerns.
- Fails to address unjust distribution of positive outcomes, lacking a justice principle.
- Conflicts may arise between the Principle of Utility and principles of justice, complicating moral evaluations.
Social Contract Theory
- Thomas Hobbes posits that life in the "state of nature" would be dire and prompts acceptance of a social contract.
- Implicit social contract establishes governance and moral rules among citizens.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasizes societal order where no individual is above the law.
- James Rachels defines morality as a set of mutually agreed rules for relational harmony.
Kinds of Rights
- Negative rights require others to refrain from interfering (e.g., privacy).
- Positive rights compel others to act on your behalf (e.g., education).
- Absolute rights are unconditional; limited rights are subject to circumstances.
John Rawls’s Principles of Justice
- Individuals have claims to basic rights as long as they do not infringe on the same rights for others.
- Social and economic inequalities must ensure equal opportunity and benefit the least advantaged, known as the difference principle.
Convenience Stores Scenario
- Bill collects customer purchase data to create profiles for marketing.
- Customers have differing reactions to the sale of their information.
- Evaluation hinges on rights concerning privacy and consent for information sharing.
Case for Social Contract Theory
- Framed through rights language, explaining self-interested behavior without common agreements.
- Analyzes governmental authority and civil obedience as justified actions.
Case Against Social Contract Theory
- The absence of an actual signed social contract raises questions about legitimacy.
- Conflicts where actions can have multiple ethical interpretations complicate the theory.
- Potentially unjust towards individuals who cannot uphold the contract due to various reasons.
Virtue Ethics
- Critiques Enlightenment theories for neglecting moral education, social relationships, and emotions.
- Virtue ethics centers on the idea of achieving excellence (arete) through moral virtues.
- Intellectual virtues involve reasoning; moral virtues concern character traits like honesty.
Aristotle on Happiness
- Happiness results from living virtuously, acquired through consistent moral behavior.
- Virtue Ethics emphasizes the right action consistent with virtuous character in any circumstance.
Vices
- Vices prevent flourishing, existing as opposites of virtues.
- Virtues are often positioned between two extremes, e.g., courage is between cowardliness and rashness.
Case for Virtue Ethics
- Emphasizes virtues over obligations or consequences, aligning ethical focus with moral character.
- Recognizes that moral skills develop through practice over time and acknowledges the role of emotions.
Case Against Virtue Ethics
- Disagreements exist on which traits constitute virtues for flourishing.
- Limited applicability to government policy-making and accountability for actions.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
- Ethical objectivism asserts morality exists independently, contrasting with relativism which considers morality as a human construct.
- Workable ethical theories share characteristics like logical reasoning and factual bases.
- Examples include Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics.
Morality of Breaking the Law
- From a social contract theory perspective, societal burdens are accepted for rights protection, emphasizing law obedience unless higher moral obligations compel disobedience.
- Kantianism argues against subverting laws under the guise of justice due to potential consequences for society.
- Rule utilitarianism weighs the happiness produced against societal respect for law.
- Act utilitarianism examines specific scenarios where benefits of breaking the law could outweigh harms.
Summary of Theories
- Kantianism: Advocates respect for equal personhood and rationality in interactions.
- Utilitarianism: Prioritizes outcome considerations in moral decisions.
- Social Contract Theory: Encourages collective promotion of human rights.
- Virtue Ethics: Trusts in virtuous individuals to make right choices based on character.
Personal Ethical Decision-Making
- Encourages individual reflection on moral duties, rights, consequences, and virtues.
- Prompts consideration of personal aspirations for character and societal context.
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Description
This quiz explores the benefits and costs of living in communities, examining economic specialization and its impact on living standards. It also delves into ethical perspectives, contrasting selfish and ethical worldviews, and defining key concepts such as society, morality, and ethics.
