Linguistics: Presupposition and Information Hierarchy

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Questions and Answers

What is the main idea behind Grice's implicature theory?

That language use is determined by linguistic facts alone.

That language use is based on cognitive mechanisms of information processing.

That language use is based on innate cognitive principles.

That language use is guided by rational design characteristics of communication. (correct)

What is the focus of the 'Neo-Gricean' line of argumentation?

Developing relevance theory.

Studying the cognitive mechanisms of information processing.

Giving explanations of linguistic facts. (correct)

Explaining the nature of inference in communication.

According to Grice, what is the general meaning of 'or'?

Context-dependent.

Exclusive.

Inclusive. (correct)

Ambiguous.

What is the purpose of the Quantity implicature 'not both'?

To convey the exclusive meaning of 'or'. Signup and view all the answers

What is a central attraction of the Gricean approach?

Simplifying the kinds of meanings we attribute to expressions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the two branches of contemporary theory?

One is focused on cognitive mechanisms, the other on rational design characteristics of communication. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a context where the exclusive meaning of 'or' is not applicable?

When saying 'I lent you my pen or my pencil, or both'. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of pragmatic inference in Grice's theory?

To specialize the general meaning of words in context. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of pragmatics within the theory of meaning?

Implicit meaning, inference, and the unsaid Signup and view all the answers

Who is the author of the article 'Pragmatics'?

Stephen C. Levinson Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the study of the relation of signs to the things referred to?

Semantics Signup and view all the answers

What is the reason for pragmatics becoming an important part of general linguistic theory?

Because it has substantial intrinsic subject matter Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the institute where the author is the Director?

Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics Signup and view all the answers

Who is the philosopher who contributed to the development of pragmatics?

C.S. Peirce Signup and view all the answers

What is the study of the relation of signs to signs?

Syntax Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the person who proposed the three divisions of semiotics?

C.Morris Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the expressions 'and' and 'or' in terms of informativeness?

The use of 'and' is more informative than the use of 'or'. Signup and view all the answers

What is implicated when asserting 'p or q'?

That one is not in a position to assert 'p and q'. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a scalar implicature?

Some students are punctual implies not all students are punctual. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between 'John could solve the problem' and 'John had the ability to solve the problem'?

The first implies he did solve it, while the second implies he didn't. Signup and view all the answers

What is the general pattern observed in scalar implicatures?

Asserting the weaker expression implicates the inapplicability of the stronger expression. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe these implicatures?

Scalar implicatures. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of a less direct, unusual, or marked expression?

It suggests a complementary interpretation. Signup and view all the answers

Who have contributed to the development of modern treatments of scalar implicatures?

Atlas, Gazdar, Horn, and Levinson. Signup and view all the answers

What does the attribution of meaning to utterances depend on?

The sequential location Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of artificial intelligence in regards to conversations?

To create a machine that can enter into functional dialogues Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a pragmatic perspective on language?

Code-switching Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between semiotic systems and their contexts of use?

They are systematically related Signup and view all the answers

What is true about the meaning attributed in context?

It is generated by presumptions of use Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of deixis in language?

To make provision for contextual features Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a roadsign depicting falling rocks?

To add the illocutionary force 'Beware!' Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the coded meaning and the meaning attributed in context?

The coded meaning is specific, while the meaning attributed in context is generated by presumptions of use Signup and view all the answers

What does the sentence 'Has he stopped bothering you?' presuppose?

That you and the speaker know he has been bothering you Signup and view all the answers

What is the classical test for presupposition?

Survival under negation Signup and view all the answers

What type of verbs presuppose their complements?

Mental attitude verbs Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a definite description that presupposes the existence of an entity?

The king of Buganda Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of pragmatic inferences?

They can be cancelled in the context of contrary assumptions Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concern of speech acts in pragmatics?

The general force or point of utterances Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an iterative verb that presupposes earlier occurrences?

Again Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of presupposition in natural languages?

They are built to trade on, and signal, the dependency of utterances on propositions already taken for granted Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Pragmatics: Study of Language in Context

Pragmatics is the study of the relation between language structure and its usage in context, focusing on implicit meaning, inference, and the unsaid.

History of Pragmatics

The term 'pragmatics' derives from the philosophical work of C.S. Peirce and R.Carnap, as reflected in C.M. Morris's three divisions of semiotics: syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Presupposition

Presupposition is a phenomenon where a sentence or phrase implies the existence or truth of another proposition, often signaled through language structure.
Examples: "Has he stopped bothering you?" presupposes that he has been bothering you, and "The king of Buganda" presupposes the existence of the king.
Presupposition can be tested through negation, e.g., "He hasn't stopped bothering me" and "He has stopped bothering me" both presuppose that he was bothering me.

Speech Acts

Speech acts concern the general force or point of utterances, including the intended meaning and the speaker's goals.
Grice's idea of implicature theory suggests that the presumption of background principles of language use can generate many detailed inferences that are not entailed by what has been said.

Inference and Implicature

Inference is a process of generating meaning from context, often involving implicit assumptions.
Implicature is the act of implying or suggesting something through language, often beyond the literal meaning of the words.
Examples: "I lent you my pen or my pencil, or both" implies that the speaker is not sure which one they lent, and "Some of the students are punctual" implies that not all students are punctual.

Scalar Implicatures

Scalar implicatures occur when a weaker or less informative expression is used, implying that a stronger or more informative expression does not apply.
Examples: "John could solve the problem" implies that he did solve it, while "John had the ability to solve the problem" implies that he didn't.
The study of scalar implicatures has led to observations about the systematic relations between language structure and context.

Conversation and Context

The attribution of meaning to utterances depends crucially on sequential location in a conversation.
Grice's maxim of Relevance suggests that the implicatures of an utterance derive from the expected goals of the speaker at a particular point in discourse.
Goal-driven accounts of conversational understanding have been explored in artificial intelligence research.

Conclusions

Pragmatics research has led to an overall picture of the systematic relations between semiotic systems and their contexts of use.
Key findings include the provision of contextual features in language, the generation of meaning through presumptions of use, and the underspecification of coded meaning in language.

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Description

This quiz explores the concept of presupposition in linguistics, including how it relates to information hierarchy and mental attitude verbs.