Linguistics IB: Language and the Brain

Questions and Answers

What is a speech community?

A group that promotes a specific language

A geographic region with a single dialect

A group of people who share norms and expectations regarding language use (correct)

A group sharing economic interests

Social dialects focus mainly on rural speech.

False

What is an idiolect?

An individual's unique way of speaking.

Samples of speech often vary based on _____ (social class, gender, age).

social class Signup and view all the answers

What does 'overt prestige' refer to?

The value attributed to speech forms recognized as better in society Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a social marker?

Saying 'going' instead of 'goin' Signup and view all the answers

How is social class related to linguistic variation?

Linguistic variables are markers of social classes. Signup and view all the answers

What is one challenge in studying language in social contexts?

Gathering data without affecting speech styles of participants Signup and view all the answers

What did William Labov's findings indicate regarding postvocalic /r/?

Higher socio-economic status correlates with a higher frequency of postvocalic /r/ pronunciation. Signup and view all the answers

Slang is typically used by established higher-status groups.

False Signup and view all the answers

One linguistic feature often associated with African American English is the use of _____ (double negatives).

double negatives Signup and view all the answers

What is the study of language history and change called?

Philology Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following events influenced the development of the English language? (Select all that apply)

The Norman Conquest Signup and view all the answers

The term Proto-Indo-European refers to the hypothesized original form of a language that is the source of many languages in India and Europe.

True Signup and view all the answers

Match the following English language periods with their time frames:

Old English = 450-1100 Middle English = 1100-1500 Early Modern English = 1500-1700 Signup and view all the answers

The __________ is a term used to describe a variety of language associated with educational and administrative centers.

Standard Language Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called that reconstructs the proto form of a common ancestral language?

Comparative Reconstruction Signup and view all the answers

The Great Vowel Shift caused vowels to generally move down in pronunciation.

False Signup and view all the answers

What influences language change? (Select all that apply)

Historical events Signup and view all the answers

What is an isogloss?

An isogloss represents the limit of an area in which a particular linguistic feature is found among the majority of speakers. Signup and view all the answers

__________ refers to a hierarchical relationship between a standard variety and a local variety.

Diglossia Signup and view all the answers

What are pidgins?

Pidgins are contact languages that developed for practical purposes among groups that did not have a common language. Signup and view all the answers

Creoles are languages that develop from pidgins and have native speakers.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which a language or variety is officially selected for use in government or education?

Language Planning Signup and view all the answers

What is neurolinguistics?

The study of the relationship between language and the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What accident occurred in September of 1848 that is significant in neurolinguistics?

The accident of Phineas P. Gage who had a rod go through the front of his face but recovered and could still speak. Signup and view all the answers

Language functions are mainly carried out by the right hemisphere of the brain.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is Broca’s area responsible for?

Preparing to generate the spoken version of a word. Signup and view all the answers

Define the 'Tip of the Tongue' phenomenon.

A state where one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar form and meaning. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of aphasia?

Stroke Signup and view all the answers

What type of speech is characterized by missing grammatical markers?

Agrammatic speech. Signup and view all the answers

Dichotic listening tests show right hemisphere specialization for language.

False Signup and view all the answers

When does the critical or sensitive period for language acquisition generally occur?

Between birth and puberty. Signup and view all the answers

What is 'motherese'?

A simplified speech style used by caregivers when speaking to infants. Signup and view all the answers

The first use of speech-like sounds by an infant is called __.

Cooing Signup and view all the answers

At what age do children begin to produce recognizable single-unit utterances?

12-18 months Signup and view all the answers

What is telegraphic speech?

Speech characterized by strings of words in phrases or sentences with mainly content words. Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of speech error with its definition:

Perseveration = Sound carried over to the next word Anticipation = Sound used before the next word Exchange = Sounds change places Slips of the Brain = Errors in speech production Signup and view all the answers

All 4-legged animals may be referred to as __ by young children.

Dogs Signup and view all the answers

What role does interaction with caregivers play in language acquisition?

It brings the child's innate language capacity into contact with a particular language. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Innatist Theory?

A theory that suggests humans have an innate capacity to acquire language through inborn structures in the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept suggests that children have innate knowledge of basic grammatical structures?

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Signup and view all the answers

The critical period is essential for second language acquisition.

False Signup and view all the answers

The ability to produce an infinite number of sentences without formal teaching is a concept known as __________.

Poverty of Stimulus argument Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of input in first language acquisition?

Input is essential as children must hear a language in order to acquire it effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes second language learning from foreign language learning?

Second language is typically learned in an immersive environment. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of acquisition in language learning?

Acquisition describes the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. Signup and view all the answers

Formal teaching is essential for effective second language acquisition.

False Signup and view all the answers

The process of using features from the first language while learning a second language is known as __________.

transfer Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

Innatist Theory = Humans have an inborn capacity to learn language. SLA = Second Language Acquisition. Input Hypothesis = Input must be comprehensible for effective learning. Cognitive Theory = Language learning involves automatic and controlled processes. Signup and view all the answers

What is Krashen's Monitor Theory?

Krashen's Monitor Theory distinguishes between acquisition and learning in language learning, suggesting that acquisition is the primary means of language use. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors can affect second language acquisition?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by communicative competence?

Communicative competence is the ability to use language accurately, appropriately, and flexibly in various contexts. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Neurolinguistics and Language Processing

Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the brain, dating back to the 19th century.
The Phineas Gage accident in 1848 showed that language abilities are not located in the front of the brain.

Language Localization and Functions

Language functions are primarily carried out by the left hemisphere of the brain.
The localization view suggests that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different language functions, such as Wernicke's area for comprehension and Broca's area for speech production.
The language processing pathway involves:
- Hearing and comprehending words in Wernicke's area
- Transferring signals to Broca's area for speech preparation
- Sending signals to the motor cortex for articulation

Language Storage and Retrieval

The brain stores language knowledge using metaphors, such as the "pathway" or "dictionary" metaphors.
The mental lexicon is organized by semantic and phonological information, with words retrieved through a network of associations.
The Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) phenomenon shows that speakers can recall words with similar meanings and sounds, but struggle to retrieve the exact word.

Aphasia and Language Impairments

Aphasia is an impairment of language function due to localized brain damage, leading to difficulties in understanding and producing language.
There are different types of aphasia, including:
- Broca's aphasia (motor aphasia): impaired speaking with preserved comprehension
- Wernicke's aphasia (sensory aphasia): fluent speaking with impaired comprehension
- Conduction aphasia: difficulty repeating words and phrases

Language Acquisition and Development

Language acquisition occurs rapidly during childhood, with children developing language skills through interaction with caregivers and older children.
The language acquisition schedule is similar across children, with milestones such as:
- Cooing and babbling (0-6 months)
- One-word stage (12-18 months)
- Two-word stage (18-24 months)
- Telegraphic speech (2-2.5 years)
Children develop language skills through social interaction, with adults and caregivers providing feedback and confirming communication.

Critical Period and Lateralization

The critical period for language acquisition is generally between birth and puberty, when the brain is most receptive to language input.
Lateralization refers to the specialization of the left hemisphere for language processing, with the right hemisphere responsible for non-verbal tasks.
Dichotic listening tests demonstrate the left-ear advantage for speech sounds and the right-ear advantage for non-verbal sounds.### The Acquisition Process
Children actively construct their own language from what they hear around them, rather than being explicitly taught.
Adults do not provide direct instruction on how to speak the language, and children do not simply imitate adult speech.
Children understand what adults are saying, but have their own way of expressing themselves.
Adult corrections are not a significant factor in shaping a child's speech production.
Word play and interaction with others are important elements in a child's linguistic development.

Developing Morphology

By 2.5 years old, children start using inflectional and functional morphemes, such as the -ing form and prepositions.
The -s form for regular plurals and the possessive inflection -'s are acquired next.
Irregular plurals and past tense forms are learned, with some overgeneralization.
The regular past tense forms with -ed and the present tense -s are acquired later.

Developing Syntax

Two structures acquired in a regular way are the formation of questions and the use of negatives.
There are three stages of question formation: adding a wh-form, using rising intonation, and inverting the auxiliary verb.
Negatives are first formed by adding No or Not, then don't and can't, and finally other auxiliary forms.
The typical Stage 1 forms disappear, and isn't is acquired late.

Developing Semantics

Children often overextend the meaning of words based on similarities, such as shape, sound, and size.
The semantic development is a process of overextension, followed by narrowing down the application of each term as more words are learned.
Children tend to use "middle" level terms in hyponymous sets, such as dog rather than animal or terrier.

Later Developments

Antonymous relations, such as more/less and before/after, are acquired after the age of five.
The ability to produce complex structures and extended discourse is acquired later.
By age five, children have completed the greater part of the basic language acquisition process.

Innatist Theory

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is an innate capacity for language acquisition.
Children have innate knowledge of basic grammatical structure that is the basis for all languages.
The LAD gives humans a natural propensity to organize spoken language in various grammatical ways.
Language structure is hardwired as a kind of "Universal Grammar" (UG).
The critical period is essential for first language acquisition.

The Role of Input and Rules

Input from the environment is crucial for language acquisition.
The role of rules and schooling in language learning is limited, as they teach a literary standard that differs from the language system in our heads.### Second Language Acquisition/Learning (SLA)
Distinction between Foreign Language (FL) and Second Language (SL) settings:
- FL: learning a language not spoken in the surrounding community (e.g., Japanese students learning English in Japan)
- SL: learning a language spoken in the surrounding community (e.g., Japanese students learning English in the USA)
Distinction between Acquisition and Learning:
- Acquisition: gradual development of language ability through natural use in communicative situations (often without a teacher)
- Learning: conscious process of accumulating knowledge about language features, such as vocabulary and grammar (often in an institutional setting)

Acquisition Barriers

Lack of time, focus, and incentive can undermine L2 learning attempts
Even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adults seem to reach native-like proficiency in using an L2
Some features of an L2, such as vocabulary and grammar, may be easier to learn than others, such as pronunciation (Joseph Conrad phenomenon)
Without early experience using the sounds and intonation of the L2, even highly proficient adult learners may retain an accent

The Age Factor

The optimal age for L2 learning may be between 10 and 16 years old, when the flexibility of our inherent capacity for language has not been completely lost, and cognitive skills allow for effective analysis of the L2
Teenagers may be quicker and more effective L2 learners in the classroom than younger children
The dominance of L1 can be particularly strong in terms of pronunciation

Affective Factors

Self-consciousness and lack of empathy with the target culture can create a barrier to acquisition
Negative feelings, such as stress, discomfort, or self-doubt, can impede L2 learning
Learners with personality traits like self-confidence, low anxiety, and a positive self-image tend to overcome difficulties more effectively

Focus on Teaching Methods

Grammar-Translation Method:
- Treats L2 learning like an academic subject
- Emphasizes vocabulary lists, grammar rules, and written language
- Lacks emphasis on conversational aspects
Audiolingual Method:
- Emphasizes spoken language and systematic presentation of L2 structures
- Involves language lab drills and practice
- Critics argue that it lacks resemblance to actual spoken language use and can be boring
Communicative Approaches:
- Emphasize language functions and authentic communication
- Organize lessons around real-life concepts and tasks
- Provide more appropriate materials for L2 learning with a specific purpose
Task-Based Learning:
- Involves interactive tasks and activities to promote L2 use
- Assumes that learners will improve their fluency by using the L2 to achieve a goal
- Results show more and better L2 use by learners

Contrastive Analysis

Study and comparison of two languages to identify structural differences and similarities
Goal: predict linguistic difficulties experienced during L2 acquisition

Focus on the Learner

Shift from concern with the teacher, textbook, and method to an interest in the learner and the acquisition process
Errors are seen as an indication of the natural L2 acquisition process
Transfer (cross-linguistic influence) can occur when using sounds, expressions, or structures from the L1 in the L2

Interlanguage

Language produced by L2 learners contains "errors" that seem to have no connection to the forms of either the L1 or L2
Evidence suggests an in-between system (interlanguage) used in L2 acquisition, which is inherently variable and has its own rules
Interlanguage is the basis of all L2 production and can fossilize if learners do not progress beyond it

Motivation

Instrumental motivation: learning the L2 for a specific goal or purpose
Integrative motivation: learning the L2 for social purposes and to become an accepted member of the target culture
Success in L2 communication can motivate learners to continue learning

Input and Output

Input: language that the learner is exposed to, which should be comprehensible
Output: opportunity to produce comprehensible language in meaningful interaction
Negotiated input: L2 material acquired through interaction and requests for clarification

Communicative Competence

General ability to use language accurately, appropriately, and flexibly
Components:
- Grammatical competence: accurate use of words and structures
- Sociolinguistic competence: ability to use language appropriately in social contexts
- Strategic competence: ability to organize a message effectively and compensate for difficulties

Krashen's Monitor Theory

Children acquire language almost automatically, but it's difficult for older learners to acquire another language
Krashen's Monitor Theory attempts to explain this difference

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Description

Explore the relationship between language and the brain, including the study of neurolinguistics and Phineas Gage's accident. Learn about the localization of language abilities in the brain.